ACCORDING TO SPEAKING CONSULTANT Lilyan Wilder (1999), two of the greatest myths about delivering oral presentations are that you're better off "winging it" and that good speakers are "naturals."
In order to give an effective presentation, it is necessary to prepare and practice, practice, practice. Despite the need to prepare, one of your goals still should be to sound spontaneous and comfortable while delivering your message in a clear, organized, and stimulating fashion. The information below should help you achieve this goal:
FIRST STEPS
There are a few steps you need to take before writing your presentation, including thinking about who your audience is, what the expectations for the speech are, and selecting an appropriate topic.
Researching the topic
If you are presenting something that you've already written, then this step won't require much work. Otherwise, you'll need to follow the same procedures as with writing and narrowing down your topic for a research paper.
Organizing and writing the speech
This requires a different approach than writing a research paper.
Practicing the speech and handling logistics
There are a number of details to prepare for in advance of delivering your presentation.
Phrasing the speech
A presentation requires different language and phrasing than a written document. A presentation is a dialogue. It should sound natural and be somewhat conversational.
Managing your stage fright
If you are shy, or unaccustomed to talking to a group of people, there are things you can do to make yourself less anxious.
Visual aids
The big event
It's important to present yourself and your material in a polished, yet comfortable, fashion. If you've followed the ideas listed above, it should be a successful experience.
Web sites of Interest
We have identified a number of Web sites offering information about preparing oral presentations and related issues.
References
PRELIMINARY STEPS FOR PREPARING AN ORAL PRESENTATION
Analyzing the situation
Before you decide on a topic for your speech, it's important to think about how to make your presentation interesting to your teacher and classmates. This may sound obvious, but have you looked at the material that you've covered so far in class? How could you relate what you want to say to what's already been taught? Relating your material to information your audience is already familiar with will not only demonstrate to the teacher that you've been paying attention, it will also help your classmates understand and remember your points.
Example: If you've examined a particular novelist in your literature class, you may want to refer to that novelist again in your talk on literary styles.
Know how much time you have, how loudly you will need to speak for your classmates to hear you, and how many people will be in the audience. These facts will help determine the depth of your talk, the visual aids you can use, and the environment for your presentation.
Choosing a topic and a focus
Choose a topic that not only excites you, but one about which you either are an expert or can become one. You may not have a choice about your topic, but regardless of the subject, you still make decisions about what direction you're going to take. Try to relate your topic to current issues, whether they are happening at your school, in your city, or in the world. Timeliness can make a presentation more interesting to your audience.
In order to focus on a topic, follow these steps:
Determine your general goal, e.g., to talk about recycling in the city.
Develop a precise objective, e.g., to instruct people about the recycling facilities and programs in the city of Chicago.
Develop a precise objective, e.g., to instruct people about the recycling facilities and programs in the city of Chicago.
Develop a one-sentence summary, e.g., There are many recycling facilities in the city of Chicago that are not fully used.
Develop a title, e.g., The Underuse of Chicago's Recycling Facilities.
Although there may be some overlap, try to decide what your main goal will be. This will help give your paper direction and consistency. Some important main goals include:
* Interest
* Inform
* Persuade
* Motivate
Researching the Topic
Collect more information than you think you need. As you prepare your presentation, you will whittle away at your notes and tighten your focus. Organize your information the same way that you would for a research paper.
Recommendation:
Read through your finished notes and label each section with a number or word that tells you where each thought fits into your outline (discussed in the next section of this Guide). Then, when you start to flesh out your presentation, you can quickly skim and organize your notes.
ORGANIZING AND WRITING THE SPEECH
Developing an oral presentation is different than writing a report that will be read silently. The audience can't turn back to the first part of your speech and examine what you said. That's why speakers often repeat themselves throughout their presentations. The informal formula for public speaking is "First, tell the audience what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then tell them what you just told them."
You should follow this same mantra when structuring the notes that will serve as the basis for your oral presentation. Not only should you repeat some things, but you should also be extremely organized, so your listeners can easily follow what you say.
The first step to take before writing your speech is to create an outline. Write down three to four main points, fill them in with subheadings, and then add third-level subheadings. Make each point a complete sentence. This skeletal structure will be the outline for your other notes, and eventually, the speech itself. Most word processing software includes an outlining feature, which may help.
Suggested organization:
Introduction
In addition to your main points, you need an introduction and a conclusion. The introduction should capture the audience's attention and warm you up. Some experts recommend humor, but exercise caution; if your joke falls flat, you immediately lose your audience. It's better to start on a genuine note. Some suggestions (Dodd, 1997) for introductions include:
* Refer to a local event or a recent event in the news
* Tell a personal story, preferably one that is humorous
* Read a quote
* Ask a question
* Refer to something that's just happened in class
No matter which of these devices you use, they should be tied somehow to your topic. Make a statement that somehow connects the introduction to the body of the talk.
Main points
Include at least three or four main points.
Conclusion
Either end with a concluding statement or invite questions, or both. When you end your speech, only use the words "in conclusion," "finally," or "one more thing" if you are really finished. Also, don't end your speech suddenly without recapping what you've said (remember to remind your audience of what you've just told them).
PRACTICING THE SPEECH AND HANDLING LOGISTICS
You should practice your speech at least once before you present it. Practice in an environment that is as similar as possible to where you'll be giving the presentation. Practice in front of people and use your visual aids. Your talk should be a combination of entertainment, information, and intellectual stimulation, all delivered with a spontaneous and comfortable feel. The following guidelines will help you achieve this:
Do not memorize a paper and deliver it verbatim. You may want to memorize certain small sections, and you will want to know the order of your presentation by heart, but the goal is to sound natural. Reading lines does not sound spontaneous unless you're a really good actor.
Write in large, boldface letters, regardless of whether you use note cards or regular paper for your notes. In order to engage your audience, you should look up from your paper or notes several times during the presentation, and you don't want to lose your place when you look back down at the text. Using note cards makes it easier to find your place, but some people don't like flipping through cards.
Try recording yourself and listening to the tone, pitch, and speed of your voice. Work on sounding natural and relaxed.
Pause naturally as you would in conversation.
Practicing your speech out loud can help you clarify your thoughts. As you practice, don't be afraid to add ideas or change what you've planned.
You may want to add directions on your notes like "slow down," "look at the audience," and "remember to pause." These will remind you to do the things that are sometimes hard to remember during the excitement of speaking in front of a group.
Logistics
If you're going to use any kind of equipment, make sure that everything is in working order before you arrive for your presentation. Try to anticipate what problems might arise, and how to solve them. For example, "what will you I do if the computer crashes?" Or, "what will I do if the person who speaks before me takes up too much time, and I have to shorten my speech?" Be prepared for all the possible things that can go wrong.
If you're not giving your presentation in a familiar location (like your classroom), check out the space before the day of your presentation so you know how big the room is and what kind of technical options are available (and functioning). Will you need a microphone? Is there an Internet hook-up? Do the electrical outlets and lights work? How are they controlled? If you will need a projection screen, is there one already in the room? If so, how does it work? These are all important details.
PHRASING THE SPEECH
You should use different language for an oral presentation than you would for a research paper. A speech should not sound as formal as a report. Remember that you're talking, and that people will respond better when the language is familiar. Here are a few ways in which oral communication differs from written (Dodd, 1997):
* More audience-specific
* More interactive
* More immediate
* More personal
* More informal
* More opportunities to use visual communication
Not only is the style of a presentation different from that of a paper, but the language is as well. Here are a few considerations for phrasing your oral presentation:
* Use conjunctions-they sound more natural
* Use vocabulary that will be understood. Your audience won't have time to look up unfamiliar words.
* Use enumeration to tie your points together. (i.e., First I would like to discuss this issue. Second …)
* Use parallel construction in your phrasing to help the audience follow what you're saying.
* Use personal pronouns and refer to yourself and the audience.
* Interject ideas and comments-make it personal!
* Ask occasional questions.
With all of this advice about what you should say, it's easy to forget one of the most important tips of all-do not be afraid of silence! Pause occasionally.
MANAGING STAGE FRIGHT
A recent study suggests that people unfamiliar with communication theory think that stage fright is caused mostly by what happens during the speech (Bippus & Daly, 1999). In actuality, what happens before the speech affects your state of mind as much-if not more-than the speech itself. In other words, practicing and preparing are two of the best ways to eliminate stage fright.
Overcoming Stage Fright
Practice in a place or situation as similar as possible to where you will be giving your talk. This includes practicing in front of people, preferably classmates.
Watch or listen to other speeches, either in person or through (audio or video) recordings. Take note of what works and what doesn't.
Use mental imagery to picture yourself in front of an audience. Try to become comfortable with the idea.
Before you practice, and again before you deliver your presentation, perform voice and breathing exercises to warm up your vocal cords.
If your hands shake, hold on to something like a small object, a pointer, or a lectern.
Have water with you if possible, both during practice and while presenting.
Take pauses and breathe normally.
Try to establish a dialogue with the audience. This will make the whole experience feel more natural.
VISUAL AIDS
When you create and display visual aids during an oral presentation, there are a few general principles that you should follow.
Keep it simple
Use color, but not too much
Color accelerates learning and recall by 55% or more and comprehension by 70% (Dodd, 1997). But too much color can be distracting.
Break complex ideas into simpler visual parts
If you plan to show a complex idea visually, break the image into smaller, less complicated parts. An overlay is a possible option.
Show = Discuss
Do not show anything that you don't plan to discuss. Explain what's in each graphic.
Do not talk at your visual aid
Direct your presentation toward the audience and refer to your images with a pointer or pen.
Steady hands
If you're hands are shaky, a pointer, pen, or pencil will help steady you.
You can use the following options, but beware of the problems associated with each:
Overheads are simple and clear, and you don't have to depend on a computer. They can, however, get out of order, have poor print quality, and cause other problems if the transition between each one is not smooth. If you are able, have someone else be responsible for turning your overheads during your presentation, so you can concentrate on speaking and directing the overall presentation.
PowerPoint or similar slide-show software programs can produce professional-looking presentations. You can store your presentation on a disk and carry it with you, and it's also easy to make changes to your presentation. However, using such software does force dependence on computer technology, and if the computer crashes, or if there are other technology problems, you won't have your slide-show. Therefore, when you use such software, always have available alternative visuals such as overheads or paper handouts.
Slides give you clear images of photographs and also allow for easy change in the order of your presentation. However, they can be expensive, and you can't change the images once they're created.
Whiteboards and paper are convenient if you feel comfortable writing your points in front of the audience. They also let you be spontaneous and incorporate feedback from the audience. However, they don't look as professional as other media, and they force you to spend a lot of time writing when you should be talking (often with your back to the audience).
Handouts are an excellent accompaniment to any of the options listed above, but they can also pose their own problems. If you distribute them at the beginning of your presentation, you risk losing your audience's attention; their attention may turn to the handout rather than following what you are saying.
Nevertheless, having the audience follow along with the handout can be a successful strategy. You can also pass out a summary of your speech that the audience can take away with them. A final option is to pass out handouts to support the information you bring up as you talk. However, this can also deflect attention away from you, and cause the audience to miss pertinent points. Be sparing with handouts, but understand that they can be instrumental in helping the audience remember your speech.
THE BIG EVENT
In addition to some common sense tips-like getting a good night's sleep the night before and eating breakfast-here are some other helpful ideas.
* Warm up with breathing and vocal exercises.
* Take a deep breath before walking to the front of the room.
* Walk slowly to the front, pause, and look at the audience before speaking.
* Learn to be comfortable with the sound of your voice.
* Remember to pause.
* Focus on the audience, not your notes or visual aids.
* Try to change the tone of your speech periodically to keep the audience's attention.
When it's all over, ask for feedback, and remember that this is a learning experience. You'll continue to become a better public speaker the more times you go through this process.
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
Effective Presentations Online Tutorial, University of Kansas
http://www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.html
Dos and Don'ts of Oral Presentation, Voice For Success
http://voiceforsuccess.com/doc3_pub.html
Making an Oral Presentation, University of Toronto
http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/handbook-oral.html
REFERENCES
Bippus. A., & Daly, J. (1999)
What do People Think Causes Stage Fright? Naïve Attributions about the Reasons for Public Speaking Anxiety
Communication Education, 48, 61-72.
Dodd, J. (Ed.). (1997)
The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors (2nd ed.)
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Menzel, K. & Carrell, L. (1994)
The Relationship Between Preparation and Performance in Public Speaking
Communication Education, 43,17-26.
Mills, G. (1952)
Composing the Speech
New York: Prentice-Hall.
Ochs, D., & Winkler, A. (1983)
A Brief Introduction to Speech (2nd ed.)
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Sullivan, L. (1994)
Preparing Great Speeches: A 10-step Approach
College & Research Libraries News, 55 (11), 710-714.
Wilder, L. (1999)
7 Steps to Fearless Speaking
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Tuesday, June 30, 2009
How To Write a Lab or Science Report
THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE is to help you learn to write student-level reports of laboratory research, also known as scientific reports or lab reports. Although we will discuss some differences between professional and student-level lab reports, our main focus is helping you complete and understand those you will do at a high school level. However, even as a student you might discover that one of your reports is worthy of publication in scientific journals, if you follow good scientific method and the suggestions we provide in this guide. After all, a number of successful scientists first published the results of their research when they were in high school or even earlier (e.g., Louis Agassiz, the paleontologist, Jean Piaget, the psychologist, and Terence Tao, the mathematician).
How lab reports differ from term papers
Lab reports differ in several ways from term papers (also sometimes called "research papers") that you complete for other classes.
Main goals: Communicate clearly and answer the key questions
At the student level, your main goal for a lab report should be to communicate clearly to your instructor what you did and observed in your study (or experiment), as well as what the results mean. (We will refer broadly to any form of data collection as a "study," encompassing both direct forms of data collection such as experiments, as well as indirect observational or "qualitative" studies often conducted in the social sciences.) Some of the key questions an instructor might ask you in determining your level of understanding include:
* Do you have a clearly stated objective or hypothesis?
* Do you present the data in a clear and concise fashion?
* Are you able to interpret the results of the study?
* Can you account for any discrepancies in your results?
* Do you present a thoughtful conclusion?
* Do you understand the overall relevance of the findings from the study?
Sections
The lab report answers such questions in a formal and structured way. You will usually follow the following sequence in actually writing your lab report, but note that the abstract (if you include it) will come first among these elements in the final report:
Introduction
Provides background information (e.g., previous studies) and includes the objectives and the hypothesis.
Method
Specifies the details of your study, including information about any participants, materials, or measurement devices used; procedures; and specialized statistical or related analytic tools. In other words, how did you do it?
Results
Reports the data and analyses based on the data. States whether the results were consistent with the hypotheses, usually without interpretation of any wider meaning or importance. What did you find?
Discussion
Interprets the results of the experiment in terms of wider meaning and importance. What do the results mean?
References
List of works used to write the lab report.
Appendix (or Appendices)
Addendum of raw data, charts, graphs, or any information that was not easily included in the body of the lab report.
Abstract
(Optional; as your instructor requests) Provides a summary of the lab report and is placed at the report's beginning.
Your instructor may require variations of this framework or use different terminology. For example, the Method section might also be called "Materials and Methods," "Methodology," or "Experimental." The framework we present here has evolved over the past few hundred years in the history of science, and even today is neither universal nor the only "correct" way to structure a lab report, but is certainly more commonly used.
Tips to get you started
Websites of Interest
We have identified a number of Web sites offering information about writing lab reports.
References
HOW LAB REPORTS DIFFER FROM TERM PAPERS
The skills required for writing student-level lab reports and term papers are much the same, and most of the processes required are identical. We will highlight some of the differences, however, to help define the overall goal of lab reports.
Lab reports generally require less time for background research. For a lab report, you really only need to present the reader with enough background information to provide a rationale for the hypothesis and the particular tests used in the study. Of course, this distinction only holds true for student-level lab reports; professional lab reports often require a great deal of time searching through library and Web-based research reports. The Web has made it much easier to complete background research for lab reports.
Lab reports emphasize standardized and clear presentation of information. Where the lab report places relatively less importance on library and Web-based research than a research or term paper, it places greater emphasis on clear descriptions and following standardized formats in the structure of the report. Ultimately, the lab report "should enable readers to replicate the experiment so that they can verify the results for themselves" (Beer, 1997).
Despite these differences, both the lab report and the term paper should follow basic rules of good writing and research.
INTRODUCTION
Your introduction describes why the question you are investigating is important. In your introduction, you generally provide a provisional answer to the question in the form of a prediction, usually referred to as a hypothesis. You will introduce the important concepts, mathematical relationships, and any definitions that are relevant to the study described in the following sections. As with the rest of the report, your writing should be clear, concise, and easy to understand.
Your introduction should answer these questions:
* What is the nature of the study?
* What is the objective of the study?
* What background information is necessary for the reader?
* What particular method was used to conduct the study? Why?
Briefly summarize the background information you have collected through library and Web-based research. Include only the references that provide the most relevant information. From reading this section, your instructor should be able to quickly understand the nature of the study and why you are conducting it.
Typically, the introduction is written in present tense and follows a narrative form.
METHOD
Depending on your instructor's preferences, you may need to refer to this section as "Material and Methods," "Experimental," "Procedures," or "Methodology."
The subsections you should include depend on the specific features of your study. Here are the subsections most frequently included in student-level Method sections:
Sample- If your study includes human participants, describe them in this first subsection. Delete this subsection if your study does not examine humans.
Experimenters- If the characteristics of the experimenters in your study are likely to affect its results, you should include this section to describe the experimenters, who are the people collecting the data. Provide enough description to allow someone else to match the characteristics of your experimenters if he or she tries to duplicate or replicate the findings of your study. Most reports do not include an experimenters section; this section is more common in research in the social sciences.
Materials (and measures)- This subsection describes all nonhuman materials or organisms used in your study. This is a broad category and includes any substances, instruments, or apparatus used in the experiment. The presentation of this section should be chronological. Depending on the complexity of the tools you use to measure the results of your study, you may also need to include a special subsection on "Measures." This is especially true if your study hinges on the quality of specific measures used. If your study focuses on plants or animals, you would probably describe them in the materials section; however, your instructor may wish to see any live materials set apart in a "sample" section.
Procedures- This subsection focuses on techniques and procedures used in the experiment. This includes all steps necessary for someone to recreate your experiment, and-if all goes well-to reproduce your results.
Analyses- This subsection is included only if you will be using complex or less commonly used analytic methods, such as new statistical methods with which your instructor may not have great familiarity. It informs your instructor of the particular method behind the data analysis you will describe in the next section of the lab report.
In a nutshell, the Method section should describe what materials you used and what you did with them (Lobban, 1992). You should include the type of equipment, technology, and amounts of different compounds used, and so on. Although you should not describe every detail of your process, you need to explain how you set up the study in enough detail for a reader to repeat or replicate it. You should also include any details that will affect the outcome of the study. Include a description of any anomalies that you found in the study. Be exact and specific in your descriptions. For example, if the study took place in an environment at room temperature, do not simply write, "the experiment was undertaken at room temperature." Instead, note the exact temperature of the room.
Ask your instructor exactly how detailed your Method section should be. Although you might simply need to follow a lab manual or handout that includes a detailed description of the materials and methods of your study, your instructor may want you to rewrite the entire procedure, rather than just cite the lab manual. Furthermore, your instructor may have modified a study that you are following from a published manual. You should note these modifications. You must also record any differences from the lab manual that you or your lab partner(s) made during the study.
Keep in mind that this section is very important. In order for your work to be of scientific merit, you must provide enough information for your reader to be able to reproduce your methods. If you do not give your reader enough detail, others will find it impossible to repeat or replicate your study, which will make any results you report suspect.
Writing Tips for the Method Section
Unless your study is extremely simple, or you are otherwise instructed, use subsections with their own headers (e.g., write "Materials" on the left margin and underline, then start the materials subsection with a new paragraph).
You may find it convenient to itemize items within the subsections in a list format. For example, you could include "the exact technical specifications and quantities and source or method of preparation" (Day, 1998). However, your instructor may also prefer that you write everything out.
In all sections, but especially in the procedures subsection, avoid using the word "then" repeatedly, as in, "then I added the sulfur compound, and then I stirred, and then I looked at the result." Instead, write in chronological order, so the "then" is understood.
Never use ambiguous words like "maybe" or "often" or "sometimes." Be explicit and accurate. Try to quantify the information that you present as much as possible. This ensures that the reader will be able to replicate the experiment.
Usually the Method section is written in past tense.
RESULTS
In this section, you present the data that you collected and recorded during your study. Your task is to report the findings clearly and accurately, but you do not want to elaborate on the "meaning" or "interpretation" of these results. You will do that in the next section, Discussion.
You should use proper units of measurement and be clear and concise to avoid misinterpretation. Include all of your calculations and formulas. Define new symbols and other pertinent information. Make sure your calculations are organized and sequential, use proper units, and are clearly labeled.
If you determined only a few results (whether qualitative or quantitative), then include and describe them within the body of the text. If your study is complex, with many variables, or if for any reason the results are too complex to describe easily through the body of the text, present them in tables or figures. However, you will still need to refer to the graphs and identify or highlight the key findings in the body of the text. In other words, the reason you provide the tables and figures is to communicate clearly to the reader, who will rely on your text to help him or her make the most sense out of the tables and figures.
Tables. Tables include columns and rows in which you organize information. Any data that cannot be appropriately conveyed in a few simple lines within the text of the lab report should be presented in a table. You can include very large tables of raw data in an Appendix.
In your written report, present large tables on separate pages. Each table requires a title and each column of data should be clearly labeled.
Figures and Graph. Figures in lab reports are the remaining "catch-all" category, and can include graphs, scatterplots of data points, and-less frequently-drawings and even photographs. Essentially, figures are pictures of things. Our discussion will focus on the use of graphs, but there may be times when you need to include other types of figures in your report.
The type of graph that you will draw (if applicable) depends on the type of data that you have collected. Continuous data involves the relationship between two factors, and requires a line graph. In other words, if the objective of the study is to demonstrate whether a relationship exists between two variables, you should use a line graph.
Discrete data, such as the number of humans being studied within a particular group, requires a histogram or bar graph.
In a line graph, plot the independent variable along the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical).
Definitions: Independent and Dependent variables
Independent variables are variables that presumably effect other variables. In experiments, you purposefully change or manipulate independent variables to test whether this effects another variable of interest, which is the "dependent" variable because its value depends (or is thought to depend on) the independent variable.
Results
Once you have prepared the appropriate tables, graphs, and figures, you can begin writing the Results section. State the results briefly. Describe the overall results in a narrative manner. You don't need to describe each separate measurement, except when you come across particularly unusual data that you wish to highlight.
Try to resist the temptation to explain the meaning of your results; save it for the next section.
Add the tables and figures (remember, graphs are called "figures"), and consecutively number all tables as tables, and all figures as figures. In other words, if you have first two tables followed by a figure, then a table, then another figure, the names for them would be Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Table 3, and Figure 2.
Avoid redundancy. Do not simply repeat the data that is listed in the tables and figures.
Finally, as with the Method section, Results section is usually written in the past tense.
DISCUSSION
You address the importance and meaning of the results in the Discussion section. It is appropriate to address the following questions in this section:
* Do the results support the objective of your experiment?
* Do the results support or refute your hypothesis (or hypotheses), your original predictions?
* Are the results consistent with those reported by other investigators?
* If the results were not as expected, or deviated somewhat from what was expected, what are some possible explanations?
* Are there any potential threats to your conclusions caused by your methods? What limitations in your study provide opportunities for future investigators to improve on or extend your investigation?
* If your study disproves a theory or part of a theory, can you recommend changes in real world practices that exist because the theory was assumed to be true?
The Discussion section usually begins with your interpretation of the data. In particular, did the findings reported in the results section refute or fail to refute the hypothesis (or hypotheses)? A key issue here is whether you really tried to disprove hypotheses in your study, or were instead-as is usually the case with student-level research-merely trying to verify theoretical relationships already "known."
Professional-level researchers often try to disprove theories through elaborately designed studies, or-more commonly-sets of studies. They can spend years at the effort. As a student researcher, don't expect to disprove widely accepted theories or "laws." Even when your data are inconsistent with established theory, it is likely to be the case that some error in method, or analysis or interpretation of the data, may be the culprit. Then again, perhaps you really did uncover something interesting, and unexpected, that will make others take notice! This is part of what makes science interesting to scientific researchers.
At any rate, now you see why it is so important to completely and accurately record what you do in the Method and Results sections. If you do happen to disprove an established theory, or make an otherwise interesting discovery, other researchers will immediately seek to repeat what you did and verify your interpretations. If the theory says there is a positive correlation between two variables, and you did not observe it in your study, you will need to admit any potential limitations in your study that might produce such lack of correlation. For example, you might say: "The observed lack of theoretically predicted correlation between the two variables may have arisen due to several factors, including…"
However, it is important not to panic if your study results do not conform to those predicted by theory. First, the theory could in fact be wrong, and if your results are inconsistent with even established theory you must believe it is plausible that the theory is wrong. To do otherwise would be intellectually dishonest. However, to be intellectually fair, you must also identify sources of possible error in your methods and analyses.
In your discussion of the potential limitations of your study, you must report any problems with the materials you used, errors in calculation and methodology (you should always try to correct those before turning in your report, however), and anything else that might have altered the results of the experiment. If you can do this, you will still do well on the lab report, despite the fact that you may have obtained unexpected results.
End your discussion section by summarizing your conclusions. Relate these conclusions back to your introduction. Also, consider how the results of your study, or at least research of this sort, may be of practical benefit in the world. This will be easier to address if the line of research has obvious applications to help people or yield improved products or services; however, even seemingly "pure" research may suggest potential practical benefits down the line. Use your imagination to uncover the possible applications, which may of course be (reasonably) speculative.
Again, be concise, clear, and straightforward. There is no need for fancy language. Creative writing will not cover up the fact that you did not understand the significance of the experiment.
The discussion section should be written in the past tense when it refers to the study and the results you found. However, you may need to write in the present and even the future tense when discussing implications for current and future theory, practice, and any expectations you have for your next steps in research.
REFERENCES
A list of references is a list of sources that you actually cited in your lab report. Because a lab report does not require much original research, your instructor is likely to ask for a list of references rather than a more extensive bibliography. Ask to make sure. A bibliography is different from a list of references, because it includes a list of relevant or important works that you consulted in order to write your lab report, but did not cite.
Citations are important. First, you want to give credit through citation in order to avoid plagiarism. Also, appropriate citations make your report more scholarly and prove to your instructor that you took the time to consult other works.
Remember to check (and double-check) all the information in your references. To be complete in your report, you must check your reference information against the original source; if you don't, at least note the source where you obtained the reference ("cited in…"). It is wise to add references to your reference list as you write your report, but also remember to check through the completed report and verify that you have included a reference for all works cited. You will also want to delete those references from your reference list (but not a bibliography, if you include one) that you do not actually cite.
References are generally arranged in alphabetical order by the authors' last names, but this will depend on which citation style your teacher wants you to use.
Citation Style
There are numerous citation styles from which to choose. Some widely used options:
The Chicago Manual of Style (1993)
The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (Gibaldi, 1999)
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994). We generally follow American Psychological Association (APA) citation style in this Research Guide.
The ACS Style Guide (Dodd, 1986) from the American Chemical Society
A Manual for Writers of Terms Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (Turabian, 1996)
Citation of Electronic Source
Information is increasingly available on the Web and through other electronic sources, e.g., the Internet, CD-ROMs, direct e-mail from researchers and research centers, and so on. When you cite a Web site, use a citation style appropriate to electronic sources. There are different styles available for citing electronic sources, so ask your instructor for his or her preferred style. Many of the traditional sources of citation style listed above (e.g., Gibaldi, 1999; APA, 1994) also provide guidelines for citing electronic sources. You may also turn to Walker and Taylor (1998) and others (Hale & Scanlon, 1999; Li & Crane, 1996; Library of Congress, 1999), which focus exclusively on electronic usage and citation.
APPENDIX (OR APPENDICES)
This section should be added only if needed. Generally, you will add an appendix when there is too much data to include in the results section, but when this data is needed to make the report complete. This might include raw data, tables, charts, or figures. However, many professional level scientific reports follow a different practice; where material is not essential for the basic report (e.g., raw data, extensive tables, and so on), many authors simply ask the reader to contact the author for the additional information. Even in that case the author treats the additional information as if it were an appendix, and it is therefore good practice even at the professional level to prepare these appendices at the time one completes the basic report.
ABSTRACT
Ask your instructor whether you should include an abstract with your lab report. An abstract is a one-paragraph summary or synopsis of the entire lab report. Include the abstract at the very beginning of the lab report, and set it apart by writing the word "Abstract" above this section, and then somehow show that the introduction begins immediately afterward.
Remember that the abstract is an overall summary of your entire report, and should not serve as an introductory paragraph; that is the purpose of the introduction!
The abstract must also be able to stand on its own, so don't make any statements that require further explanation or that reference an issue you raise in the body of your paper. Do not include references to your own lab report (e.g., to tables and graphs) or to literature citations. (In some professional scientific journals there are exceptions to this rule, but for student-level reports you should not include such references.)
Write the abstract so that it makes sense to a reader who hasn't read the rest of your report. In the opening sentence(s) of the abstract, you should state the purpose of the experiment. In the subsequent sentence(s), you should briefly describe the methods used to obtain the results and tests of any hypotheses. In the body of the abstract, you should note whether or not the hypotheses were rejected (and the implications of such) and other important findings from the study. End with your overall conclusions. If there is time and room, mention the "real world" practical applications of what you discovered through your research.
Tips To Get You Started
Be confident. Don't panic. Even if this is your first lab report, you should do well if you follow the general framework, write clearly and concisely, and convey to your instructor that you understand the study.
Just start it. Take one step at a time, and you will reach your goal. The main thing is to begin and to persevere. Begin by completing a draft of each section in the order presented in this guide-namely: Introduction, Method, Results (and associated tables and figures), Discussion, References (although keep adding to your references as you cite them), Appendix (optional), and Abstract (if your instructor requires it). Also add a title page if your instructor requests one. After completing a draft of all sections, you can then revise them as needed.
Don't delay writing notes on what you have done, especially for the Method and Results sections. It is too easy to forget the specific methods you used, or if any odd events occurred during your study that might have effected the results.
Use a Research Notebook. There is no such thing as "down time" while you are completing your study. During the period when you are completing your introduction, you may have a good idea when you are eating breakfast. Write it down in your notebook.
While you are collecting data, there may be times when you are waiting for a particular reaction to occur. Use that time to think and write. Jot down notes in your notebook. You can also use such a notebook for recording hypotheses, notes from articles or Web sites, or drafting paragraphs to add to your various sections. Most professional-level researchers maintain such notebooks that form the "raw material" for their reports, and such notebooks can also help you as a student.
WEBSITES OF INTEREST
Citing references using major styles:
Citing Electronic Sources, Library of Congress.
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ndlpedu/start/cite/index.html
Sites on writing lab reports
Writing a Laboratory Report, by Deborah Mowshowitz, Director of Undergraduate Program and Laboratories, Columbia University.
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/mowshowitz/howto_guide/lab_report.html
Laboratory Reports, Engineering Communication Centre, University of Toronto.
http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/handbook-lab.html
Laboratory Notebook and Lab Report Writing (chemistry orientation).
http://chemlabs.uoregon.edu/Classes/Exton/Misc/prelab.html
A Guide for Writing Research Papers
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtml
General writing help
Writing Resources on the Web, Undergraduate Affairs, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://web.mit.edu/uaa/www/writing/links/
Scientific organizations, styles of writing across sciences
Scholarly Societies project, University of Waterloo Library.
http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/overview.html
Research notebooks
Research Notebooks, Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://www.cs.indiana.edu/mit.research.how.to/section3.6.html
Reporting statistical methods and information
Statistics and Statistical Graphics Resources, York University.
http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/StatResource.html
Science fairs
How to develop your lab report into a sustained project that can lead to educational and career opportunities.
Your Science Fair Project Research Guide, Internet Public Library.
http://www.ipl.org/youth/projectguide/
Science fairs, World Wide Web Virtual Library.
http://physics1.usc.edu/~gould/ScienceFairs/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrass, R. 1978
Scientists Must Write: A Guide to Better Writing for Scientists, Engineers and Students
London: Chapman and Hall.
Beer, D., & McMurrey, D. 1997
A Guide to Writing as an Engineer
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). 1993
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Day, R. 1998
How to Write & Publish a Scientific Paper
Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
Dodd, J. S. (Ed.). 1986
The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Gibaldi, J. 1999
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (5th ed.)
New York: Modern Language Association of America.
Hale, C., & Scanlon, J. 1999
Wired Style: Principles of English Usage in the Digital Age (rev. ed.)
New York: Broadway Books.
Katz, M. J. 1985
Elements of the Scientific Paper
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Li, X. and Crane, N. B. 1996
Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (rev. ed.)
Medford, NJ: Information Today.
Lobban, C. S., & Schefter, M. 1992
Successful Lab Reports: A Manual for Science Students
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). 1994
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Turabian, K. L. 1996
A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (6th ed.)
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Walker, J. R. and T. Taylor. 1998
Columbia Guide to Online Style
New York: University Press.
How lab reports differ from term papers
Lab reports differ in several ways from term papers (also sometimes called "research papers") that you complete for other classes.
Main goals: Communicate clearly and answer the key questions
At the student level, your main goal for a lab report should be to communicate clearly to your instructor what you did and observed in your study (or experiment), as well as what the results mean. (We will refer broadly to any form of data collection as a "study," encompassing both direct forms of data collection such as experiments, as well as indirect observational or "qualitative" studies often conducted in the social sciences.) Some of the key questions an instructor might ask you in determining your level of understanding include:
* Do you have a clearly stated objective or hypothesis?
* Do you present the data in a clear and concise fashion?
* Are you able to interpret the results of the study?
* Can you account for any discrepancies in your results?
* Do you present a thoughtful conclusion?
* Do you understand the overall relevance of the findings from the study?
Sections
The lab report answers such questions in a formal and structured way. You will usually follow the following sequence in actually writing your lab report, but note that the abstract (if you include it) will come first among these elements in the final report:
Introduction
Provides background information (e.g., previous studies) and includes the objectives and the hypothesis.
Method
Specifies the details of your study, including information about any participants, materials, or measurement devices used; procedures; and specialized statistical or related analytic tools. In other words, how did you do it?
Results
Reports the data and analyses based on the data. States whether the results were consistent with the hypotheses, usually without interpretation of any wider meaning or importance. What did you find?
Discussion
Interprets the results of the experiment in terms of wider meaning and importance. What do the results mean?
References
List of works used to write the lab report.
Appendix (or Appendices)
Addendum of raw data, charts, graphs, or any information that was not easily included in the body of the lab report.
Abstract
(Optional; as your instructor requests) Provides a summary of the lab report and is placed at the report's beginning.
Your instructor may require variations of this framework or use different terminology. For example, the Method section might also be called "Materials and Methods," "Methodology," or "Experimental." The framework we present here has evolved over the past few hundred years in the history of science, and even today is neither universal nor the only "correct" way to structure a lab report, but is certainly more commonly used.
Tips to get you started
Websites of Interest
We have identified a number of Web sites offering information about writing lab reports.
References
HOW LAB REPORTS DIFFER FROM TERM PAPERS
The skills required for writing student-level lab reports and term papers are much the same, and most of the processes required are identical. We will highlight some of the differences, however, to help define the overall goal of lab reports.
Lab reports generally require less time for background research. For a lab report, you really only need to present the reader with enough background information to provide a rationale for the hypothesis and the particular tests used in the study. Of course, this distinction only holds true for student-level lab reports; professional lab reports often require a great deal of time searching through library and Web-based research reports. The Web has made it much easier to complete background research for lab reports.
Lab reports emphasize standardized and clear presentation of information. Where the lab report places relatively less importance on library and Web-based research than a research or term paper, it places greater emphasis on clear descriptions and following standardized formats in the structure of the report. Ultimately, the lab report "should enable readers to replicate the experiment so that they can verify the results for themselves" (Beer, 1997).
Despite these differences, both the lab report and the term paper should follow basic rules of good writing and research.
INTRODUCTION
Your introduction describes why the question you are investigating is important. In your introduction, you generally provide a provisional answer to the question in the form of a prediction, usually referred to as a hypothesis. You will introduce the important concepts, mathematical relationships, and any definitions that are relevant to the study described in the following sections. As with the rest of the report, your writing should be clear, concise, and easy to understand.
Your introduction should answer these questions:
* What is the nature of the study?
* What is the objective of the study?
* What background information is necessary for the reader?
* What particular method was used to conduct the study? Why?
Briefly summarize the background information you have collected through library and Web-based research. Include only the references that provide the most relevant information. From reading this section, your instructor should be able to quickly understand the nature of the study and why you are conducting it.
Typically, the introduction is written in present tense and follows a narrative form.
METHOD
Depending on your instructor's preferences, you may need to refer to this section as "Material and Methods," "Experimental," "Procedures," or "Methodology."
The subsections you should include depend on the specific features of your study. Here are the subsections most frequently included in student-level Method sections:
Sample- If your study includes human participants, describe them in this first subsection. Delete this subsection if your study does not examine humans.
Experimenters- If the characteristics of the experimenters in your study are likely to affect its results, you should include this section to describe the experimenters, who are the people collecting the data. Provide enough description to allow someone else to match the characteristics of your experimenters if he or she tries to duplicate or replicate the findings of your study. Most reports do not include an experimenters section; this section is more common in research in the social sciences.
Materials (and measures)- This subsection describes all nonhuman materials or organisms used in your study. This is a broad category and includes any substances, instruments, or apparatus used in the experiment. The presentation of this section should be chronological. Depending on the complexity of the tools you use to measure the results of your study, you may also need to include a special subsection on "Measures." This is especially true if your study hinges on the quality of specific measures used. If your study focuses on plants or animals, you would probably describe them in the materials section; however, your instructor may wish to see any live materials set apart in a "sample" section.
Procedures- This subsection focuses on techniques and procedures used in the experiment. This includes all steps necessary for someone to recreate your experiment, and-if all goes well-to reproduce your results.
Analyses- This subsection is included only if you will be using complex or less commonly used analytic methods, such as new statistical methods with which your instructor may not have great familiarity. It informs your instructor of the particular method behind the data analysis you will describe in the next section of the lab report.
In a nutshell, the Method section should describe what materials you used and what you did with them (Lobban, 1992). You should include the type of equipment, technology, and amounts of different compounds used, and so on. Although you should not describe every detail of your process, you need to explain how you set up the study in enough detail for a reader to repeat or replicate it. You should also include any details that will affect the outcome of the study. Include a description of any anomalies that you found in the study. Be exact and specific in your descriptions. For example, if the study took place in an environment at room temperature, do not simply write, "the experiment was undertaken at room temperature." Instead, note the exact temperature of the room.
Ask your instructor exactly how detailed your Method section should be. Although you might simply need to follow a lab manual or handout that includes a detailed description of the materials and methods of your study, your instructor may want you to rewrite the entire procedure, rather than just cite the lab manual. Furthermore, your instructor may have modified a study that you are following from a published manual. You should note these modifications. You must also record any differences from the lab manual that you or your lab partner(s) made during the study.
Keep in mind that this section is very important. In order for your work to be of scientific merit, you must provide enough information for your reader to be able to reproduce your methods. If you do not give your reader enough detail, others will find it impossible to repeat or replicate your study, which will make any results you report suspect.
Writing Tips for the Method Section
Unless your study is extremely simple, or you are otherwise instructed, use subsections with their own headers (e.g., write "Materials" on the left margin and underline, then start the materials subsection with a new paragraph).
You may find it convenient to itemize items within the subsections in a list format. For example, you could include "the exact technical specifications and quantities and source or method of preparation" (Day, 1998). However, your instructor may also prefer that you write everything out.
In all sections, but especially in the procedures subsection, avoid using the word "then" repeatedly, as in, "then I added the sulfur compound, and then I stirred, and then I looked at the result." Instead, write in chronological order, so the "then" is understood.
Never use ambiguous words like "maybe" or "often" or "sometimes." Be explicit and accurate. Try to quantify the information that you present as much as possible. This ensures that the reader will be able to replicate the experiment.
Usually the Method section is written in past tense.
RESULTS
In this section, you present the data that you collected and recorded during your study. Your task is to report the findings clearly and accurately, but you do not want to elaborate on the "meaning" or "interpretation" of these results. You will do that in the next section, Discussion.
You should use proper units of measurement and be clear and concise to avoid misinterpretation. Include all of your calculations and formulas. Define new symbols and other pertinent information. Make sure your calculations are organized and sequential, use proper units, and are clearly labeled.
If you determined only a few results (whether qualitative or quantitative), then include and describe them within the body of the text. If your study is complex, with many variables, or if for any reason the results are too complex to describe easily through the body of the text, present them in tables or figures. However, you will still need to refer to the graphs and identify or highlight the key findings in the body of the text. In other words, the reason you provide the tables and figures is to communicate clearly to the reader, who will rely on your text to help him or her make the most sense out of the tables and figures.
Tables. Tables include columns and rows in which you organize information. Any data that cannot be appropriately conveyed in a few simple lines within the text of the lab report should be presented in a table. You can include very large tables of raw data in an Appendix.
In your written report, present large tables on separate pages. Each table requires a title and each column of data should be clearly labeled.
Figures and Graph. Figures in lab reports are the remaining "catch-all" category, and can include graphs, scatterplots of data points, and-less frequently-drawings and even photographs. Essentially, figures are pictures of things. Our discussion will focus on the use of graphs, but there may be times when you need to include other types of figures in your report.
The type of graph that you will draw (if applicable) depends on the type of data that you have collected. Continuous data involves the relationship between two factors, and requires a line graph. In other words, if the objective of the study is to demonstrate whether a relationship exists between two variables, you should use a line graph.
Discrete data, such as the number of humans being studied within a particular group, requires a histogram or bar graph.
In a line graph, plot the independent variable along the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical).
Definitions: Independent and Dependent variables
Independent variables are variables that presumably effect other variables. In experiments, you purposefully change or manipulate independent variables to test whether this effects another variable of interest, which is the "dependent" variable because its value depends (or is thought to depend on) the independent variable.
Results
Once you have prepared the appropriate tables, graphs, and figures, you can begin writing the Results section. State the results briefly. Describe the overall results in a narrative manner. You don't need to describe each separate measurement, except when you come across particularly unusual data that you wish to highlight.
Try to resist the temptation to explain the meaning of your results; save it for the next section.
Add the tables and figures (remember, graphs are called "figures"), and consecutively number all tables as tables, and all figures as figures. In other words, if you have first two tables followed by a figure, then a table, then another figure, the names for them would be Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Table 3, and Figure 2.
Avoid redundancy. Do not simply repeat the data that is listed in the tables and figures.
Finally, as with the Method section, Results section is usually written in the past tense.
DISCUSSION
You address the importance and meaning of the results in the Discussion section. It is appropriate to address the following questions in this section:
* Do the results support the objective of your experiment?
* Do the results support or refute your hypothesis (or hypotheses), your original predictions?
* Are the results consistent with those reported by other investigators?
* If the results were not as expected, or deviated somewhat from what was expected, what are some possible explanations?
* Are there any potential threats to your conclusions caused by your methods? What limitations in your study provide opportunities for future investigators to improve on or extend your investigation?
* If your study disproves a theory or part of a theory, can you recommend changes in real world practices that exist because the theory was assumed to be true?
The Discussion section usually begins with your interpretation of the data. In particular, did the findings reported in the results section refute or fail to refute the hypothesis (or hypotheses)? A key issue here is whether you really tried to disprove hypotheses in your study, or were instead-as is usually the case with student-level research-merely trying to verify theoretical relationships already "known."
Professional-level researchers often try to disprove theories through elaborately designed studies, or-more commonly-sets of studies. They can spend years at the effort. As a student researcher, don't expect to disprove widely accepted theories or "laws." Even when your data are inconsistent with established theory, it is likely to be the case that some error in method, or analysis or interpretation of the data, may be the culprit. Then again, perhaps you really did uncover something interesting, and unexpected, that will make others take notice! This is part of what makes science interesting to scientific researchers.
At any rate, now you see why it is so important to completely and accurately record what you do in the Method and Results sections. If you do happen to disprove an established theory, or make an otherwise interesting discovery, other researchers will immediately seek to repeat what you did and verify your interpretations. If the theory says there is a positive correlation between two variables, and you did not observe it in your study, you will need to admit any potential limitations in your study that might produce such lack of correlation. For example, you might say: "The observed lack of theoretically predicted correlation between the two variables may have arisen due to several factors, including…"
However, it is important not to panic if your study results do not conform to those predicted by theory. First, the theory could in fact be wrong, and if your results are inconsistent with even established theory you must believe it is plausible that the theory is wrong. To do otherwise would be intellectually dishonest. However, to be intellectually fair, you must also identify sources of possible error in your methods and analyses.
In your discussion of the potential limitations of your study, you must report any problems with the materials you used, errors in calculation and methodology (you should always try to correct those before turning in your report, however), and anything else that might have altered the results of the experiment. If you can do this, you will still do well on the lab report, despite the fact that you may have obtained unexpected results.
End your discussion section by summarizing your conclusions. Relate these conclusions back to your introduction. Also, consider how the results of your study, or at least research of this sort, may be of practical benefit in the world. This will be easier to address if the line of research has obvious applications to help people or yield improved products or services; however, even seemingly "pure" research may suggest potential practical benefits down the line. Use your imagination to uncover the possible applications, which may of course be (reasonably) speculative.
Again, be concise, clear, and straightforward. There is no need for fancy language. Creative writing will not cover up the fact that you did not understand the significance of the experiment.
The discussion section should be written in the past tense when it refers to the study and the results you found. However, you may need to write in the present and even the future tense when discussing implications for current and future theory, practice, and any expectations you have for your next steps in research.
REFERENCES
A list of references is a list of sources that you actually cited in your lab report. Because a lab report does not require much original research, your instructor is likely to ask for a list of references rather than a more extensive bibliography. Ask to make sure. A bibliography is different from a list of references, because it includes a list of relevant or important works that you consulted in order to write your lab report, but did not cite.
Citations are important. First, you want to give credit through citation in order to avoid plagiarism. Also, appropriate citations make your report more scholarly and prove to your instructor that you took the time to consult other works.
Remember to check (and double-check) all the information in your references. To be complete in your report, you must check your reference information against the original source; if you don't, at least note the source where you obtained the reference ("cited in…"). It is wise to add references to your reference list as you write your report, but also remember to check through the completed report and verify that you have included a reference for all works cited. You will also want to delete those references from your reference list (but not a bibliography, if you include one) that you do not actually cite.
References are generally arranged in alphabetical order by the authors' last names, but this will depend on which citation style your teacher wants you to use.
Citation Style
There are numerous citation styles from which to choose. Some widely used options:
The Chicago Manual of Style (1993)
The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (Gibaldi, 1999)
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994). We generally follow American Psychological Association (APA) citation style in this Research Guide.
The ACS Style Guide (Dodd, 1986) from the American Chemical Society
A Manual for Writers of Terms Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (Turabian, 1996)
Citation of Electronic Source
Information is increasingly available on the Web and through other electronic sources, e.g., the Internet, CD-ROMs, direct e-mail from researchers and research centers, and so on. When you cite a Web site, use a citation style appropriate to electronic sources. There are different styles available for citing electronic sources, so ask your instructor for his or her preferred style. Many of the traditional sources of citation style listed above (e.g., Gibaldi, 1999; APA, 1994) also provide guidelines for citing electronic sources. You may also turn to Walker and Taylor (1998) and others (Hale & Scanlon, 1999; Li & Crane, 1996; Library of Congress, 1999), which focus exclusively on electronic usage and citation.
APPENDIX (OR APPENDICES)
This section should be added only if needed. Generally, you will add an appendix when there is too much data to include in the results section, but when this data is needed to make the report complete. This might include raw data, tables, charts, or figures. However, many professional level scientific reports follow a different practice; where material is not essential for the basic report (e.g., raw data, extensive tables, and so on), many authors simply ask the reader to contact the author for the additional information. Even in that case the author treats the additional information as if it were an appendix, and it is therefore good practice even at the professional level to prepare these appendices at the time one completes the basic report.
ABSTRACT
Ask your instructor whether you should include an abstract with your lab report. An abstract is a one-paragraph summary or synopsis of the entire lab report. Include the abstract at the very beginning of the lab report, and set it apart by writing the word "Abstract" above this section, and then somehow show that the introduction begins immediately afterward.
Remember that the abstract is an overall summary of your entire report, and should not serve as an introductory paragraph; that is the purpose of the introduction!
The abstract must also be able to stand on its own, so don't make any statements that require further explanation or that reference an issue you raise in the body of your paper. Do not include references to your own lab report (e.g., to tables and graphs) or to literature citations. (In some professional scientific journals there are exceptions to this rule, but for student-level reports you should not include such references.)
Write the abstract so that it makes sense to a reader who hasn't read the rest of your report. In the opening sentence(s) of the abstract, you should state the purpose of the experiment. In the subsequent sentence(s), you should briefly describe the methods used to obtain the results and tests of any hypotheses. In the body of the abstract, you should note whether or not the hypotheses were rejected (and the implications of such) and other important findings from the study. End with your overall conclusions. If there is time and room, mention the "real world" practical applications of what you discovered through your research.
Tips To Get You Started
Be confident. Don't panic. Even if this is your first lab report, you should do well if you follow the general framework, write clearly and concisely, and convey to your instructor that you understand the study.
Just start it. Take one step at a time, and you will reach your goal. The main thing is to begin and to persevere. Begin by completing a draft of each section in the order presented in this guide-namely: Introduction, Method, Results (and associated tables and figures), Discussion, References (although keep adding to your references as you cite them), Appendix (optional), and Abstract (if your instructor requires it). Also add a title page if your instructor requests one. After completing a draft of all sections, you can then revise them as needed.
Don't delay writing notes on what you have done, especially for the Method and Results sections. It is too easy to forget the specific methods you used, or if any odd events occurred during your study that might have effected the results.
Use a Research Notebook. There is no such thing as "down time" while you are completing your study. During the period when you are completing your introduction, you may have a good idea when you are eating breakfast. Write it down in your notebook.
While you are collecting data, there may be times when you are waiting for a particular reaction to occur. Use that time to think and write. Jot down notes in your notebook. You can also use such a notebook for recording hypotheses, notes from articles or Web sites, or drafting paragraphs to add to your various sections. Most professional-level researchers maintain such notebooks that form the "raw material" for their reports, and such notebooks can also help you as a student.
WEBSITES OF INTEREST
Citing references using major styles:
Citing Electronic Sources, Library of Congress.
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ndlpedu/start/cite/index.html
Sites on writing lab reports
Writing a Laboratory Report, by Deborah Mowshowitz, Director of Undergraduate Program and Laboratories, Columbia University.
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/mowshowitz/howto_guide/lab_report.html
Laboratory Reports, Engineering Communication Centre, University of Toronto.
http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/handbook-lab.html
Laboratory Notebook and Lab Report Writing (chemistry orientation).
http://chemlabs.uoregon.edu/Classes/Exton/Misc/prelab.html
A Guide for Writing Research Papers
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtml
General writing help
Writing Resources on the Web, Undergraduate Affairs, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://web.mit.edu/uaa/www/writing/links/
Scientific organizations, styles of writing across sciences
Scholarly Societies project, University of Waterloo Library.
http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/overview.html
Research notebooks
Research Notebooks, Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://www.cs.indiana.edu/mit.research.how.to/section3.6.html
Reporting statistical methods and information
Statistics and Statistical Graphics Resources, York University.
http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/StatResource.html
Science fairs
How to develop your lab report into a sustained project that can lead to educational and career opportunities.
Your Science Fair Project Research Guide, Internet Public Library.
http://www.ipl.org/youth/projectguide/
Science fairs, World Wide Web Virtual Library.
http://physics1.usc.edu/~gould/ScienceFairs/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrass, R. 1978
Scientists Must Write: A Guide to Better Writing for Scientists, Engineers and Students
London: Chapman and Hall.
Beer, D., & McMurrey, D. 1997
A Guide to Writing as an Engineer
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). 1993
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Day, R. 1998
How to Write & Publish a Scientific Paper
Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
Dodd, J. S. (Ed.). 1986
The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Gibaldi, J. 1999
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (5th ed.)
New York: Modern Language Association of America.
Hale, C., & Scanlon, J. 1999
Wired Style: Principles of English Usage in the Digital Age (rev. ed.)
New York: Broadway Books.
Katz, M. J. 1985
Elements of the Scientific Paper
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Li, X. and Crane, N. B. 1996
Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (rev. ed.)
Medford, NJ: Information Today.
Lobban, C. S., & Schefter, M. 1992
Successful Lab Reports: A Manual for Science Students
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). 1994
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Turabian, K. L. 1996
A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (6th ed.)
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Walker, J. R. and T. Taylor. 1998
Columbia Guide to Online Style
New York: University Press.
How To Write Book Reviews and Literary Criticism
THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE is to help you write critical essays about books or other literary works. When you write literary criticism, you combine reasoned analysis with your personal evaluation of the work.
Literary analysis and book reviews differ from the standard book reports you were assigned in earlier grades. A book report is a mere summary of a work that describes what happened in a text and when. However, in literary criticism and book reviews, you must bring your own critical skills to bear as you analyze a text. Your instructor will be asking you to evaluate and critique the work, not just summarize it.
One of the exciting things about writing literary criticism is that you can share with others what you have learned and experienced while reading a poem, play, or novel. This personal experience is just that-personal-and is an essential ingredient for effective criticism and reviews. Nevertheless, although your work will reflect your individuality, there are some general approaches and techniques that can assist you in organizing your thoughts and creating your final report. The sections of this guide provide hints and strategies that will save you time and help you create a more thoughtful, well-written document.
How To Read Texts Critically
How to locate and use outside sources of information to gain additional perspectives on a literary work
How to organize and write the report
How To Write Reports On Nonfiction Texts
We would like to stress that just because literary criticism sounds critical, you do not have to dislike the work you are analyzing. The word criticism refers to the process of thinking critically about and evaluating a text; you are not required to give a negative evaluation of a work. In fact, there is a strong tradition in literary criticism that seeks to identify what is good about a text and to highlight it for the attention of others.
Websites of Interest
We have identified a number of Web sites that offer information about literary criticism and book reviews.
References For Further Research
HOW TO READ TEXTS CRITICALLY
Writing literary criticism involves reading texts with an eye toward evaluating them, as opposed to reading purely for pleasure or to learn facts (as with a textbook). Reading critically involves not only pinpointing the theme, or the message, of the book, but also appraising and evaluating the style of the author.
This is not easy; often you must reread a few times before you can make an effective judgment. Fortunately, people have suggested ways to accomplish this. In published guides to literary criticism (Barnet, 1985; Sullivan, 1983; Gordon, 1973), authors suggest focusing on some elements that are common to literary analysis when starting your task. Read each of the topics below for examples of how to examine texts critically:
Point of View
Point of view, also known as voice or perspective, refers to the way in which information is presented in a literary text. Who is telling the story, and how does the author's choice of narrator effect the plot? In all works of fiction, authors must make choices about what information to include and what information to leave out. The author often does not reveal everything that occurs to every character. Instead, the reader knows only what the author chooses to reveal through the voice of the narrator.
To consider how this process works, think of important episodes in your life and imagine how external witnesses might describe them. Now, imagine how people who were not present but only heard about the events might describe them. The stories will probably be very different, as they came from people with dissimilar points of view. In a novel, the point of view functions in a similar manner; the way in which information is presented varies depending on which character is speaking.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to point of view:
* Who is telling the story? How does this effect the story?
* How is what we learn in the story limited by the choice of narrator?
* Does the narrator know everything that is going on, or only some things?
* How would the story be different if the author presented another point of view?
* How does the author's choice of perspective contribute to the plot?
* Are there multiple points of view? If so, what does each contribute?
* Does the narrator provide a reliable account of events? Is he or she trustworthy?
Plot
Plot refers to the sequence of events in a story. In a well-written piece of fiction, events do not occur randomly. They are arranged according to the author's wishes. The typical plot structure contains elements of the following sequence of events:
exposition, where the author provides needed context and background information
rising action, where the author develops a series of crises
climax of the story, where the crisis is resolved in a certain way, followed by a period of
falling action or denouement, where the final elements of the plot are untangled, and the story is concluded
One way to analyze a work of fiction is to uncover the reasons the plot is constructed in a certain way.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to plot:
* Why are the events of the story arranged the way they are?
* How does the plot structure relate to the overall theme of the story?
* What keeps the plot moving? How are the characters motivated or effected by either internal (psychological, spiritual) or external (familial, societal, natural) events?
* What is the climax of the story? When does the climax occur?
* What happens after the climax, and how is it significant?
* What are the crises encountered by the characters? How are they resolved?
* Does the plot make sense? Do events occur logically?
Characterization
Characterization refers to the ways in which the author portrays the main participants. The world the author has created could contain literally anyone, yet we encounter only those he or she has chosen for us. The author makes a deliberate choice about whom to include in the story, and also controls what we learn about these characters. Determining what characters are in a story, why they are included, and how their characterization effects the meaning of the plot are other ways to analyze a work of fiction.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to characterization:
* What is the main character like? What are the virtues and vices of the character, and how are they revealed?
* What is the most important element of the main character's personality?
* What conflict does the main character confront? Is the conflict moral, material, or of some other origin? Does the character have any strong beliefs? How does this relate to the theme of the story?
* Why does the author choose to present the character in this fashion? How might the story be different with another main character?
* What minor characters are included? What are their roles in advancing the story?
* Do any of the characters change during the story? How is this change brought about?
Setting
All stories take place in a particular time and place. In many works, the setting is as important as the characters themselves. In addition to the physical place, you should pay attention to the atmosphere or feel of the setting.
Setting can evoke a particular mood, such as brightness and cheeriness, or drabness and dreariness. The setting can also reveal information about the characters. Paying attention to the environment inhabited by the main characters can be important to understanding the story. The description of the house the character lives in, or the bar he or she hangs out at, can reveal a great deal about the person's lifestyle, habits, and motives.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to setting:
* Why did the author choose to set the story in a particular time and location?
* What are the unique characteristics of the setting? How might the story be different if set in another location or time period?
* How does the setting contribute to the overall theme of the work?
* How does the setting impact the developments of the story?
* How do the characters react to the environment they are in? Are they happy where they are? Do they seek to change the setting? Are they successful?
* Is the setting used as a metaphor or symbol for anything?
Theme
Ultimately, the theme of the story is the most significant aspect of a literary work. The theme is what the work is about. What is the author trying to convey by writing the work? Fictional works are not random creations. The structure of the work, the characters, the plot, and the setting should all relate back to the central theme. The theme will not always be simple or obvious. In some cases, the reader has to infer the author's intentions by connecting various events and statements together to form a unifying image.
As you read the text, consider these questions regarding theme.
* What is the theme of the work?
* Is the theme explicitly stated? If so, where does this occur? If not, what events, actions, or statements reveal the theme?
* How do the various elements of the story (settings, plot, etc.) contribute to the theme?
* Is there more than one theme of the work? If so, which is the main theme?
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
A literary criticism is different from a typical research report because your own thoughts and opinions form the basis of your report. In most cases, your instructor will want to hear what you have to say about a particular work being discussed, not what others have written. However, studying other people's criticism can help you analyze difficult texts. Certain works, particularly those written long ago, may contain references to ancient customs, and to events that can be confusing if left unexplained. Furthermore, your knowledge of the aspects of life among other cultural groups or nations, even in contemporary times, may be insufficient to understand the commonplace references in the book. Knowing more about an author and the time period and place he or she lived in can help you to figure out these kinds of references.
For contemporary information about other cultures and nations, and for more help conducting literary research, see our recommended Web sites.
Information About Authors
Fictional stories sometimes reflect elements of the author's real life. Knowing more about authors and events that impacted their lives is therefore likely to provide you with a better understanding of their work. You can find information about authors both online and in your local library.
Online resource for author information
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Library Resources for Author Information
Several print biographical sources will also provide background information about authors' lives and help you identify the forces that may have shaped their perspectives and influenced their writing. You should be able to find these sources in most moderately sized public and academic libraries. Check with your local library for availability and location information. Two particularly useful sources are:
Dictionary of Literary Biography
Each volume focuses on a different topic, e.g., British mystery novelists or American fiction after World War II.
Contemporary Authors
Each volume is arranged alphabetically by the author's name.
Many libraries also have more specialized biographical resources, focusing on particular time periods, countries, or types of writing. See below for a few examples of these biographical resources. Your local librarian can assist you in identifying the right resource for your paper.
American Authors, 1600-1900
European Authors, 1000-1900
Native North American Literature
African American Writers
Modern American Women Writers
Information about Literary Genres and Time Periods
When you read a book, it is often helpful to be able to place the specific work into its literary and historical context. For example, when you read a tragedy, it is useful to know what the common elements of a tragedy are. How is this work similar to, or different from, traditional tragedies? Similarly, you can better understand a play set in Victorian England if you have a basic understanding of the time period. How did people dress, act, and think then? How do the characters in the work you are reading compare to people typical of that time? The sources below can assist you in answering these and many other questions.
Online Resources
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Yahoo's Literature Listings by Genre
http://dir.yahoo.com/arts/humanities/literature/genres/
About.com Classic Literature page
http://classiclit.about.com/
This site contains links to many literary genres and resources.
Library Resources
Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia
Oxford Companion to American Literature(as well as volumes for literature of other countries)
Critical Terms for Literary Study
A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory
A Handbook to Literature
You may also want to look at works on specific genres, such as the Encyclopedia of Poetry, or the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction.
Definitions of Literary Words and Concepts
Do you want to know what alliteration means? Does your writing evoke pathos? Have you used malapropisms in your essay? Check the sources below for definitions of these and other terms used in literature.
You can also find information about literary terms and concepts through resources such as the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
WRITING THE ESSAY
After you have read the novel, short story, or poem and consulted secondary sources, you can begin to write your essay. The structure of an essay is much like that of the term or research paper, as are the technical aspects.
General Advice About Writing
Before you begin your analysis, find a comfortable, quiet place to work. When you do begin writing, don't strive too hard for perfection. Initially, concentrate on getting your thoughts onto paper, as you can organize and add stylistic elements to your essay later. You may find it helpful to brainstorm or "freewrite," a technique that involves writing down your ideas as fast as they occur to you without worrying about how they connect to each other.
Leave yourself plenty of time for reflection and revision. For additional advice, see our guide on Writing a Research Paper. You might also look at:
Writing the Research Paper
http://www.english.eku.edu/SERVICES/COMP102/DEFAULT.HTM
Practical Guide to Writing Papers about Literature
http://www.gmu.edu/departments/writingcenter/handouts/litwrite.html
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org
OWL, Purdue University Online Writing Lab
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
A+ Research and Writing, Internet Public Library
http://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/
Constructing a Literary Criticism Paper
Your literary critique is a way of communicating your response to a particular work. Writing about your thoughts and feelings can be more difficult than merely listing facts, as usually there is no "correct" answer. The purpose of your essay is to lead the reader to agree with your conclusions, and you need to present your evidence to show that your point of view is reasonable and supported by the text.
Typically, an essay has three components: a thesis statement, several supporting paragraphs, and a concluding statement. See below for help with constructing each element.
Thesis Statement
Your essay should begin with a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a brief summary of your analysis, and a description of the central ideas you will examine. Simple one-page essays may have just a single-sentence thesis statement, while more complicated papers may require several paragraphs to adequately represent the main ideas.
The goal of your thesis statement is to provide a guide for readers. It should outline what you intend to discuss, and provide a sense of the structure for your paper. A thesis also gives you an opportunity to grab the reader's attention, and as such, it should be carefully written, clear, concise, and interesting. Make a bold assertion, or ask an intriguing question.
Although the thesis statement introduces the essay, you need not write it first. Do not agonize over writing a perfect thesis statement in your first draft, as you can reword it after you have written the body of the text.
Online Examples of Thesis Statements
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Body of Text
In the body of your text, you will explain and expand on your thesis statement, as well as present your evidence for the argument(s) that you are making. In this section of your paper, you should cite quotations from the work, supplemented by your own analysis and insights.
The fundamental unit in the body is the paragraph. Each contains the following elements (Sullivan, 1983, p.18):
* A topic sentence
* Sentences with concrete detail
* Unity which supports your topic
* Transitions
* A pattern of logical order
Each paragraph should have a unique idea or focus, expressed in the topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually, though not always, your lead sentence, and should forecast what is to come in the rest of the paragraph. Support the topic sentence with concrete details. Offer quotes or other examples in support of the topic sentence, and show how such textual evidence relates to and strengthens the argument you made in your thesis statement.
To achieve unity in your writing, each sentence in the paragraph should contribute to your overall argument. Do not digress or provide needless details. Provide appropriate transition sentences that link paragraphs. Such sentences connect the ideas expressed in one paragraph with those that follow. You should make your transitions clear enough so that the reader can follow along with the progression of your thoughts. Finally, there should be a logical order to your essay, and your thoughts should be carefully ordered and arranged. You can organize your essay in any number of ways, but it is important that the progression of your ideas will make sense to the reader.
Concluding Statement
Your conclusion is your last chance to make an impression on the reader, and should therefore do more than simply restate the thesis statement. You might try to answer the question "what does this all mean?" Now that you've garnered your evidence, and presented your case, so what? What final impressions do you hope to make? Highlight the important elements of your argument, but don't merely summarize what you've already stated. Try to show some broader connection between your argument, the evidence from your primary and secondary sources, and from your own personal experience, and make your conclusions seem relevant and interesting to the reader. For examples of effective concluding statements see Sullivan (1983), Gordon (1973), and Baugh (1997).
Revising and Evaluating Your Writing
Most drafts benefit from a subsequent review and revision. Try not to edit your work immediately after writing the first draft. If at all possible, put your essay aside for a bit, and come back to the work after a period of time and consider it with fresh eyes. If there is time, show your essay to a friend or parent and get their feedback. Often, others can give you perspective on whether you are making your points clearly and effectively. See the resources below for help with evaluating your writing.
Online Sources
Resources for Writers and Writing Instructors
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/links.html
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Online Writing Centers
Online Writery, University of Missouri
http://web.missouri.edu/~writery/
OWL, Online Writing Center, Purdue University
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Library Sources
The print manuals below provide advice on how to structure and compose your work. Each guide conveys a different style, so be certain to ask your instructor which style is preferred.
The Elements of Style
The Chicago Manual of Style
A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
WRITING REPORTS ON NONFICTION TEXTS
The two most common assignments for nonfiction works (history, biography, math textbook, etc.) are the book report and the book review. We will provide a brief set of tips for both types (see also Green, 1999; Baugh, 1997).
Book Report
A book report simply summarizes the book's contents, with personal evaluation by the reviewer kept to a minimum. For example, a book report on a biography of U.S. President John F. Kennedy would review the key events in his life as addressed in the biography. The report should present these facts clearly enough so that someone who has not read the book will have a good idea of what is covered.
As you read the book ask yourself the following questions:
* What is the book about? What is the main subject or focus of the book?
* Why was the book written? Does it succeed in explaining, proving, or disproving what it set out to explain, prove, or disprove?
* What is the style of the book? Is it easy to read?
* What are the highlights of the book?
These are a few ideas for things to write about. Be sure to check with your instructor for any specific instructions or requirements.
Book Review
A book review is more substantial than a book report. As with literary criticism and term papers, the writer usually argues for a thesis, e.g., that the book's author has an excellent understanding of the hip-hop music scene, but misunderstands the relationship of hip-hop to music history in general.
A book review also requires that you critically examine the author's arguments. In short, you judge the quality of the book.
The process of writing a good review begins from the moment you start reading. As you read the text ask yourself the following critical questions:
* What is the purpose of the book? Is the author trying to entertain, persuade, or inform the audience?
* Are the author's statements based on facts, opinions, or experiences?
* Has the author presented information objectively? Are other opinions fairly or equally considered?
* How well-written is the book? Are the examples clear, and is the text easy to understand?
* Finally, the most important questions: Would you recommend this book? Why or why not?
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
Glossaries of Literary Terms (see also Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary)
A Glossary of Literary Terms and A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices
http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/rhetoric.html
Literature and Literary Criticism
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Yahoo!'s Literature Links
http://dir.yahoo.com/arts/humanities/literature/
About.com Classic Literature page
http://classiclit.about.com/
Literary Resources: Theory
http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Lit/theory.html
American Literature Archive
http://www.en.utexas.edu/amlit/crit.htm
Writing Suggestions
Online Writery, University of Missouri
http://web.missouri.edu/~writery/
OWL, Online Writing Center, Purdue University
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Resources for Writers and Writing Instructors
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/links.html
George Mason University Writing Center
http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/
A+ Research and Writing, Internet Public Library
http://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/
REFERENCES
Barnet, S. 1985
Short Guide to Writing about Literature
Boston: Little, Brown.
Baugh, L. S. 1997
How to Write Term Papers and Reports
Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons.
Gordon, E. J. 1973
Writing About Imaginative Literature
New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
Green, G. W., Jr. 1999
How to get Straight A's in School and Have Fun at the Same Time
New York: Tom Doherty.
Marsh, N. 1987
How to Begin Studying English Literature
Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
Polanyi, M., & Rosch, H. 1975
Meaning
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Skapura, R., and Marlowe, J. 1988
Literature: A Students Guide to Research and Writing
Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Sullivan, J. N. 1983
Writing Themes About Literature
New York: Norton.
Literary analysis and book reviews differ from the standard book reports you were assigned in earlier grades. A book report is a mere summary of a work that describes what happened in a text and when. However, in literary criticism and book reviews, you must bring your own critical skills to bear as you analyze a text. Your instructor will be asking you to evaluate and critique the work, not just summarize it.
One of the exciting things about writing literary criticism is that you can share with others what you have learned and experienced while reading a poem, play, or novel. This personal experience is just that-personal-and is an essential ingredient for effective criticism and reviews. Nevertheless, although your work will reflect your individuality, there are some general approaches and techniques that can assist you in organizing your thoughts and creating your final report. The sections of this guide provide hints and strategies that will save you time and help you create a more thoughtful, well-written document.
How To Read Texts Critically
How to locate and use outside sources of information to gain additional perspectives on a literary work
How to organize and write the report
How To Write Reports On Nonfiction Texts
We would like to stress that just because literary criticism sounds critical, you do not have to dislike the work you are analyzing. The word criticism refers to the process of thinking critically about and evaluating a text; you are not required to give a negative evaluation of a work. In fact, there is a strong tradition in literary criticism that seeks to identify what is good about a text and to highlight it for the attention of others.
Websites of Interest
We have identified a number of Web sites that offer information about literary criticism and book reviews.
References For Further Research
HOW TO READ TEXTS CRITICALLY
Writing literary criticism involves reading texts with an eye toward evaluating them, as opposed to reading purely for pleasure or to learn facts (as with a textbook). Reading critically involves not only pinpointing the theme, or the message, of the book, but also appraising and evaluating the style of the author.
This is not easy; often you must reread a few times before you can make an effective judgment. Fortunately, people have suggested ways to accomplish this. In published guides to literary criticism (Barnet, 1985; Sullivan, 1983; Gordon, 1973), authors suggest focusing on some elements that are common to literary analysis when starting your task. Read each of the topics below for examples of how to examine texts critically:
Point of View
Point of view, also known as voice or perspective, refers to the way in which information is presented in a literary text. Who is telling the story, and how does the author's choice of narrator effect the plot? In all works of fiction, authors must make choices about what information to include and what information to leave out. The author often does not reveal everything that occurs to every character. Instead, the reader knows only what the author chooses to reveal through the voice of the narrator.
To consider how this process works, think of important episodes in your life and imagine how external witnesses might describe them. Now, imagine how people who were not present but only heard about the events might describe them. The stories will probably be very different, as they came from people with dissimilar points of view. In a novel, the point of view functions in a similar manner; the way in which information is presented varies depending on which character is speaking.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to point of view:
* Who is telling the story? How does this effect the story?
* How is what we learn in the story limited by the choice of narrator?
* Does the narrator know everything that is going on, or only some things?
* How would the story be different if the author presented another point of view?
* How does the author's choice of perspective contribute to the plot?
* Are there multiple points of view? If so, what does each contribute?
* Does the narrator provide a reliable account of events? Is he or she trustworthy?
Plot
Plot refers to the sequence of events in a story. In a well-written piece of fiction, events do not occur randomly. They are arranged according to the author's wishes. The typical plot structure contains elements of the following sequence of events:
exposition, where the author provides needed context and background information
rising action, where the author develops a series of crises
climax of the story, where the crisis is resolved in a certain way, followed by a period of
falling action or denouement, where the final elements of the plot are untangled, and the story is concluded
One way to analyze a work of fiction is to uncover the reasons the plot is constructed in a certain way.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to plot:
* Why are the events of the story arranged the way they are?
* How does the plot structure relate to the overall theme of the story?
* What keeps the plot moving? How are the characters motivated or effected by either internal (psychological, spiritual) or external (familial, societal, natural) events?
* What is the climax of the story? When does the climax occur?
* What happens after the climax, and how is it significant?
* What are the crises encountered by the characters? How are they resolved?
* Does the plot make sense? Do events occur logically?
Characterization
Characterization refers to the ways in which the author portrays the main participants. The world the author has created could contain literally anyone, yet we encounter only those he or she has chosen for us. The author makes a deliberate choice about whom to include in the story, and also controls what we learn about these characters. Determining what characters are in a story, why they are included, and how their characterization effects the meaning of the plot are other ways to analyze a work of fiction.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to characterization:
* What is the main character like? What are the virtues and vices of the character, and how are they revealed?
* What is the most important element of the main character's personality?
* What conflict does the main character confront? Is the conflict moral, material, or of some other origin? Does the character have any strong beliefs? How does this relate to the theme of the story?
* Why does the author choose to present the character in this fashion? How might the story be different with another main character?
* What minor characters are included? What are their roles in advancing the story?
* Do any of the characters change during the story? How is this change brought about?
Setting
All stories take place in a particular time and place. In many works, the setting is as important as the characters themselves. In addition to the physical place, you should pay attention to the atmosphere or feel of the setting.
Setting can evoke a particular mood, such as brightness and cheeriness, or drabness and dreariness. The setting can also reveal information about the characters. Paying attention to the environment inhabited by the main characters can be important to understanding the story. The description of the house the character lives in, or the bar he or she hangs out at, can reveal a great deal about the person's lifestyle, habits, and motives.
As you read the text, consider the following questions related to setting:
* Why did the author choose to set the story in a particular time and location?
* What are the unique characteristics of the setting? How might the story be different if set in another location or time period?
* How does the setting contribute to the overall theme of the work?
* How does the setting impact the developments of the story?
* How do the characters react to the environment they are in? Are they happy where they are? Do they seek to change the setting? Are they successful?
* Is the setting used as a metaphor or symbol for anything?
Theme
Ultimately, the theme of the story is the most significant aspect of a literary work. The theme is what the work is about. What is the author trying to convey by writing the work? Fictional works are not random creations. The structure of the work, the characters, the plot, and the setting should all relate back to the central theme. The theme will not always be simple or obvious. In some cases, the reader has to infer the author's intentions by connecting various events and statements together to form a unifying image.
As you read the text, consider these questions regarding theme.
* What is the theme of the work?
* Is the theme explicitly stated? If so, where does this occur? If not, what events, actions, or statements reveal the theme?
* How do the various elements of the story (settings, plot, etc.) contribute to the theme?
* Is there more than one theme of the work? If so, which is the main theme?
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
A literary criticism is different from a typical research report because your own thoughts and opinions form the basis of your report. In most cases, your instructor will want to hear what you have to say about a particular work being discussed, not what others have written. However, studying other people's criticism can help you analyze difficult texts. Certain works, particularly those written long ago, may contain references to ancient customs, and to events that can be confusing if left unexplained. Furthermore, your knowledge of the aspects of life among other cultural groups or nations, even in contemporary times, may be insufficient to understand the commonplace references in the book. Knowing more about an author and the time period and place he or she lived in can help you to figure out these kinds of references.
For contemporary information about other cultures and nations, and for more help conducting literary research, see our recommended Web sites.
Information About Authors
Fictional stories sometimes reflect elements of the author's real life. Knowing more about authors and events that impacted their lives is therefore likely to provide you with a better understanding of their work. You can find information about authors both online and in your local library.
Online resource for author information
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Library Resources for Author Information
Several print biographical sources will also provide background information about authors' lives and help you identify the forces that may have shaped their perspectives and influenced their writing. You should be able to find these sources in most moderately sized public and academic libraries. Check with your local library for availability and location information. Two particularly useful sources are:
Dictionary of Literary Biography
Each volume focuses on a different topic, e.g., British mystery novelists or American fiction after World War II.
Contemporary Authors
Each volume is arranged alphabetically by the author's name.
Many libraries also have more specialized biographical resources, focusing on particular time periods, countries, or types of writing. See below for a few examples of these biographical resources. Your local librarian can assist you in identifying the right resource for your paper.
American Authors, 1600-1900
European Authors, 1000-1900
Native North American Literature
African American Writers
Modern American Women Writers
Information about Literary Genres and Time Periods
When you read a book, it is often helpful to be able to place the specific work into its literary and historical context. For example, when you read a tragedy, it is useful to know what the common elements of a tragedy are. How is this work similar to, or different from, traditional tragedies? Similarly, you can better understand a play set in Victorian England if you have a basic understanding of the time period. How did people dress, act, and think then? How do the characters in the work you are reading compare to people typical of that time? The sources below can assist you in answering these and many other questions.
Online Resources
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Yahoo's Literature Listings by Genre
http://dir.yahoo.com/arts/humanities/literature/genres/
About.com Classic Literature page
http://classiclit.about.com/
This site contains links to many literary genres and resources.
Library Resources
Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia
Oxford Companion to American Literature(as well as volumes for literature of other countries)
Critical Terms for Literary Study
A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory
A Handbook to Literature
You may also want to look at works on specific genres, such as the Encyclopedia of Poetry, or the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction.
Definitions of Literary Words and Concepts
Do you want to know what alliteration means? Does your writing evoke pathos? Have you used malapropisms in your essay? Check the sources below for definitions of these and other terms used in literature.
You can also find information about literary terms and concepts through resources such as the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
WRITING THE ESSAY
After you have read the novel, short story, or poem and consulted secondary sources, you can begin to write your essay. The structure of an essay is much like that of the term or research paper, as are the technical aspects.
General Advice About Writing
Before you begin your analysis, find a comfortable, quiet place to work. When you do begin writing, don't strive too hard for perfection. Initially, concentrate on getting your thoughts onto paper, as you can organize and add stylistic elements to your essay later. You may find it helpful to brainstorm or "freewrite," a technique that involves writing down your ideas as fast as they occur to you without worrying about how they connect to each other.
Leave yourself plenty of time for reflection and revision. For additional advice, see our guide on Writing a Research Paper. You might also look at:
Writing the Research Paper
http://www.english.eku.edu/SERVICES/COMP102/DEFAULT.HTM
Practical Guide to Writing Papers about Literature
http://www.gmu.edu/departments/writingcenter/handouts/litwrite.html
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org
OWL, Purdue University Online Writing Lab
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
A+ Research and Writing, Internet Public Library
http://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/
Constructing a Literary Criticism Paper
Your literary critique is a way of communicating your response to a particular work. Writing about your thoughts and feelings can be more difficult than merely listing facts, as usually there is no "correct" answer. The purpose of your essay is to lead the reader to agree with your conclusions, and you need to present your evidence to show that your point of view is reasonable and supported by the text.
Typically, an essay has three components: a thesis statement, several supporting paragraphs, and a concluding statement. See below for help with constructing each element.
Thesis Statement
Your essay should begin with a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a brief summary of your analysis, and a description of the central ideas you will examine. Simple one-page essays may have just a single-sentence thesis statement, while more complicated papers may require several paragraphs to adequately represent the main ideas.
The goal of your thesis statement is to provide a guide for readers. It should outline what you intend to discuss, and provide a sense of the structure for your paper. A thesis also gives you an opportunity to grab the reader's attention, and as such, it should be carefully written, clear, concise, and interesting. Make a bold assertion, or ask an intriguing question.
Although the thesis statement introduces the essay, you need not write it first. Do not agonize over writing a perfect thesis statement in your first draft, as you can reword it after you have written the body of the text.
Online Examples of Thesis Statements
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Body of Text
In the body of your text, you will explain and expand on your thesis statement, as well as present your evidence for the argument(s) that you are making. In this section of your paper, you should cite quotations from the work, supplemented by your own analysis and insights.
The fundamental unit in the body is the paragraph. Each contains the following elements (Sullivan, 1983, p.18):
* A topic sentence
* Sentences with concrete detail
* Unity which supports your topic
* Transitions
* A pattern of logical order
Each paragraph should have a unique idea or focus, expressed in the topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually, though not always, your lead sentence, and should forecast what is to come in the rest of the paragraph. Support the topic sentence with concrete details. Offer quotes or other examples in support of the topic sentence, and show how such textual evidence relates to and strengthens the argument you made in your thesis statement.
To achieve unity in your writing, each sentence in the paragraph should contribute to your overall argument. Do not digress or provide needless details. Provide appropriate transition sentences that link paragraphs. Such sentences connect the ideas expressed in one paragraph with those that follow. You should make your transitions clear enough so that the reader can follow along with the progression of your thoughts. Finally, there should be a logical order to your essay, and your thoughts should be carefully ordered and arranged. You can organize your essay in any number of ways, but it is important that the progression of your ideas will make sense to the reader.
Concluding Statement
Your conclusion is your last chance to make an impression on the reader, and should therefore do more than simply restate the thesis statement. You might try to answer the question "what does this all mean?" Now that you've garnered your evidence, and presented your case, so what? What final impressions do you hope to make? Highlight the important elements of your argument, but don't merely summarize what you've already stated. Try to show some broader connection between your argument, the evidence from your primary and secondary sources, and from your own personal experience, and make your conclusions seem relevant and interesting to the reader. For examples of effective concluding statements see Sullivan (1983), Gordon (1973), and Baugh (1997).
Revising and Evaluating Your Writing
Most drafts benefit from a subsequent review and revision. Try not to edit your work immediately after writing the first draft. If at all possible, put your essay aside for a bit, and come back to the work after a period of time and consider it with fresh eyes. If there is time, show your essay to a friend or parent and get their feedback. Often, others can give you perspective on whether you are making your points clearly and effectively. See the resources below for help with evaluating your writing.
Online Sources
Resources for Writers and Writing Instructors
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/links.html
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Online Writing Centers
Online Writery, University of Missouri
http://web.missouri.edu/~writery/
OWL, Online Writing Center, Purdue University
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Library Sources
The print manuals below provide advice on how to structure and compose your work. Each guide conveys a different style, so be certain to ask your instructor which style is preferred.
The Elements of Style
The Chicago Manual of Style
A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
WRITING REPORTS ON NONFICTION TEXTS
The two most common assignments for nonfiction works (history, biography, math textbook, etc.) are the book report and the book review. We will provide a brief set of tips for both types (see also Green, 1999; Baugh, 1997).
Book Report
A book report simply summarizes the book's contents, with personal evaluation by the reviewer kept to a minimum. For example, a book report on a biography of U.S. President John F. Kennedy would review the key events in his life as addressed in the biography. The report should present these facts clearly enough so that someone who has not read the book will have a good idea of what is covered.
As you read the book ask yourself the following questions:
* What is the book about? What is the main subject or focus of the book?
* Why was the book written? Does it succeed in explaining, proving, or disproving what it set out to explain, prove, or disprove?
* What is the style of the book? Is it easy to read?
* What are the highlights of the book?
These are a few ideas for things to write about. Be sure to check with your instructor for any specific instructions or requirements.
Book Review
A book review is more substantial than a book report. As with literary criticism and term papers, the writer usually argues for a thesis, e.g., that the book's author has an excellent understanding of the hip-hop music scene, but misunderstands the relationship of hip-hop to music history in general.
A book review also requires that you critically examine the author's arguments. In short, you judge the quality of the book.
The process of writing a good review begins from the moment you start reading. As you read the text ask yourself the following critical questions:
* What is the purpose of the book? Is the author trying to entertain, persuade, or inform the audience?
* Are the author's statements based on facts, opinions, or experiences?
* Has the author presented information objectively? Are other opinions fairly or equally considered?
* How well-written is the book? Are the examples clear, and is the text easy to understand?
* Finally, the most important questions: Would you recommend this book? Why or why not?
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
Glossaries of Literary Terms (see also Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary)
A Glossary of Literary Terms and A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices
http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/rhetoric.html
Literature and Literary Criticism
Internet Public Library: Online Literary Criticism Collection
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
Yahoo!'s Literature Links
http://dir.yahoo.com/arts/humanities/literature/
About.com Classic Literature page
http://classiclit.about.com/
Literary Resources: Theory
http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Lit/theory.html
American Literature Archive
http://www.en.utexas.edu/amlit/crit.htm
Writing Suggestions
Online Writery, University of Missouri
http://web.missouri.edu/~writery/
OWL, Online Writing Center, Purdue University
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
Resources for Writers and Writing Instructors
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/links.html
George Mason University Writing Center
http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/
A+ Research and Writing, Internet Public Library
http://www.ipl.org/div/teen/aplus/
REFERENCES
Barnet, S. 1985
Short Guide to Writing about Literature
Boston: Little, Brown.
Baugh, L. S. 1997
How to Write Term Papers and Reports
Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons.
Gordon, E. J. 1973
Writing About Imaginative Literature
New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
Green, G. W., Jr. 1999
How to get Straight A's in School and Have Fun at the Same Time
New York: Tom Doherty.
Marsh, N. 1987
How to Begin Studying English Literature
Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
Polanyi, M., & Rosch, H. 1975
Meaning
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Skapura, R., and Marlowe, J. 1988
Literature: A Students Guide to Research and Writing
Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Sullivan, J. N. 1983
Writing Themes About Literature
New York: Norton.
How To Write a Research Paper
SO, YOU HAVE TO WRITE A research (or term) paper, but you aren't exactly sure where to begin. Research papers can be exciting and interesting to write, but they can also be intimidating and daunting, especially if it is your first one.
Let's start at the beginning. You need to select a subject area and define your topic. If you then take each step in turn, the process will be much more manageable. There will also be times when you will miss or need to repeat a step, but we will talk more about that later.
The method discussed in this guide will work best if you have given yourself plenty of time. If you have waited until the last minute, your options will be more limited, but you may still benefit from using this guide.
The research paper, also called a term paper, should contain a thesis statement, or hypothesis, which explains to the reader the overall position or point of your argument, and the ways in which you plan to advance your argument and persuade the reader.
Follow these steps to complete your paper:
Select a Topic
You will most likely be given a broad subject by your instructor. This subject will typically have something to do with the course material you are studying. A topic is derived from the subject but differs from it in specific ways.
Narrow the Topic
While this may seem obvious, it is a very important step. You need to make sure that the topic is not so narrow that you only have a few words to say about it. You also do not want it to be so broad that you attempt to write a multivolume encyclopedia.
Develop a Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is what makes the research paper a research paper. This one statement is a crucial element in the success or failure of your project. It serves as a preview for the paper and also communicates to the reader what will be proved or disproved.
Gather Resources
This is the "research" part of your paper. You want to allow plenty of time to gather resources since this is a process that may take you in many directions. Think of this step as a process and not an event. You will probably not find everything you need in just one trip to the library, nor will you find everything on the Internet. As you conduct your research, you will learn more about your topic and be directed toward even more resources.
Read, Analyze, Record
Not only do you have to gather the resources; you will also have to read them, analyze them, and take notes on points that you may want to use to support your thesis. This is the information that you will use to build your outline and write the draft and final paper.
Create an Outline
After gathering resources and drafting a working thesis, it is time to create an outline of your paper. This will help you refine the thesis and your arguments. An outline is essentially a road map from which you write your paper.
Write a First Draft
This is a crucial step. As with the outline, a draft will give you an idea of the materials you lack and how much additional information you need. After writing your draft, you may find that your topic is too broad. For example, you may write ten pages and only cover your first two points. Don't worry if your writing isn't perfect yet. Remember, this is only a draft.
Gather Additional Information
While not always necessary, this is the point in your paper where you look for very specific information to make some of your arguments stronger. For example, you may find that adding a statistic, map, picture, or graph will support your argument. You may also find that you cannot find specific information to support one of your arguments, and might discard it in favor of one for which you have ample supporting material.
Revise the Draft
At this point, you will make editorial changes and insert new material that you have gathered. You may also find that you need to eliminate items for which you have not found supporting documentation. It is often a good idea to let your draft "sit" for a few days between readings. This allows you to have some perspective on what you have written. What seemed like a brilliant concept at midnight on Monday may seem shallow and silly in the clear light of day on Wednesday. You should always review your work before handing it in.
Cite Your Sources
Give credit where credit is due. This means that if you have quoted directly from a book or paraphrased an idea you must give the original author credit. Not doing so is called plagiarism. You will also want to make sure that your citations conform to the standards required by your instructor.
Proofread, Edit, and Revise
This is the final stage of the process. Before turning in your paper, make sure that you have "dotted all the i's and crossed all the t's."
Although we have described these steps in a linear fashion, you may not always follow them that way. It is possible that you will gather some sources before you choose the topic, or that you will write an outline and then go back and revise the thesis. Just remember that writing is a process and that these are only guidelines.
Websites of Interest
We have identified Web sites that provide additional information about writing research papers.
References
SELECTING A TOPIC: HOW TO CHOOSE WISELY
Choosing your topic is a very important step in the research process. Without a well-defined topic, it will be difficult to construct a thesis statement, gather sources, write an outline, or complete a draft.
In most cases you will be given a subject, but this is not a topic. What's the difference? Subjects are typically broad and general. Some examples of subjects are recycling, immigrant history, Shakespeare's plays, or modern art. It would be rather hard to write papers (of reasonable length) on such broad subjects.
A topic is related to the subject but is quite specific. Topics will ask a question, show a cause and effect, or make a comparison (Rozakis, 1999). The following are some examples of topics:
Recycling- What impact do recycling programs have in urban environments?
Immigrant History- How does the immigrant experience in 2000 differ from the immigrant experience in 1900?
Shakespeare- How do the women characters in Shakespeare's plays reflect the culture of the time period?
Modern Art- Is the quality of a work of modern art, as judged by art critics, related to the degree of life-adjustment difficulties of the artist?
As you can see in the above examples, the topics ask specific questions. Such questions and their answers form the basis of the thesis statement.
Sometimes you will be given a specific topic by your instructor. In such cases, you would not use this method to narrow down your topic from a broader subject.
So how does one make the leap from a broad subject to a specific topic? There are many different ways to make such a transition, and no single best approach. Perhaps most important is to select a topic that's interesting or meaningful to you. Over the course of the semester or term, you will spend a lot of time gathering and reading materials and writing your paper. The entire process will be more enjoyable and productive if you actually like and value your topic.
Here are some specific ideas for selecting topics:
Look at Course Notes
Read back over your notes and texts from class. Was there something mentioned in class or your readings that you found really interesting?
Use a General Encyclopedia
Use an encyclopedia like Encyclopædia Britannica to look up the general subject. Read the entry for the subject and explore some of the related entries. Not only will this give you a better understanding of the subject, but it also might spark some thoughts about possible topics. Use the suggested readings and bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles to find additional sources of information. These resources can be the beginning of the resource gathering process.
Use a Specialized Encyclopedia
There are encyclopedias on many specialized subjects. A librarian can help you locate one in your subject area. Thumbing through the entries may help you identify some areas of interest. Again, follow the references to related articles, and use the suggested readings and bibliographies to help you locate additional resources.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a great way to discover a topic. At the top of the paper write down the general subject. Then spend a few minutes writing down ideas about the subject. Think about the types of questions the subject brings to mind. You should have a good start on a list of topics by the end of the time period.
Rely On a Friend
Sometimes it is difficult to think of a topic by yourself. Even when you do identify a topic, you may feel that although it is personally interesting, you cannot imagine that others would find it so. Friends can help you. Ask a friend to listen to your ideas and provide you with constructive criticism. Conversely, you could ask your friend to look at what you may consider to be a "boring" topic and tell you what they would write about instead. Sometimes a fresh perspective is all it takes to help you decide; you might even find that your topic isn't that boring!
Explore Any Special Resources Held by Your Library
Libraries often maintain special collections on topics of interest (special collections can be based on the preferences of previous librarians, or individuals who made donations to the library). Often, such resources are grouped together. You may be able to browse through such special collections for interesting ideas or questions to help you with your topic. An advantage of this approach is that many of the resources that you might gather to complete the paper may already be part of the special collection.
Participate in Online Discussion Groups
Online discussion groups on subjects may provide participants the opportunity to "propose" various topics of special interest. Other participants in the group can then provide instant feedback. There are also a number of library resources that you can use. You can find these resources in most public, college, and university libraries; ask a reference librarian for help locating them. Some suggested resources follow:
10,000 Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports and Speeches: Intriguing, Original Research Topics for Every Student's Needs- If you have absolutely no idea where to start or are having trouble narrowing down your topic, this book can be quite helpful.
CQ Researcher- This title (formerly called Editorial Research Reports) provides an extensive overview of a topic in each of its weekly issues. There is also a cumulative index to the entire series. Topics found in this source typically include current "hot topics" that may have legislation pending such as gun control, the death penalty, gambling, and children's rights.
Editorials on File- A great place to check to see if your topic might be arguable. This source reproduces editorials from over 150 newspapers from North America (United States and Canada).
Issues and Controversies on File- Each weekly magazine covers several contemporary issues. Again, these are "hot topics" or things you may hear about in the news. Another great source to use if your topic is arguable (controversies almost always have two sides to them).
When choosing your topic, you will also want to make sure that it fits into the scope of your assignment. If in doubt, always check with your instructor. He or she can provide you with advice throughout the research process.
Finally, make certain that your topic is "arguable." Remember that your ability to argue for your thesis is what makes your research paper a research paper. You might consider the way your reader (in most cases, your instructor) is likely to look at and react to things. Of course, it all depends on your goal for the paper.
NARROWING YOUR TOPIC: HOW TO GET AND REMAIN FOCUSED
You have already begun to sculpt a research topic from a broader subject, and will recall that the topic must be narrower than the subject. However, it must not become too narrow. If your topic becomes too restricted, you might end up with a simple and unarguable statement of fact, such as "Albert Einstein invented the theory of relativity." This will not satisfy the requirements of a research paper, in which you must argue your thesis.
Here are some additional questions to think about when you are narrowing your topic:
How much time do you have?
The more time you have, the more sophisticated your research topic can be. If you are pressed for time and the paper you want to write on is a topic not often written about, or if your library's collection does not include resources in this area, you may have problems. In such situations, you would be wise to choose a simpler topic given the nature of your resources.
How long is your paper?
Longer papers support broader topics. Make the breadth of the topic appropriate to its length. You will have problems writing a ten-page paper if your topic is too narrowly focused. Conversely, you will have problems adequately addressing all the points of a broader topic if your paper is too short.
Often, your instructor will require a specific length for the paper. If so, you should narrow or broaden your topic accordingly.
What types of resources do you need to use?
The types of resources you are required to use for the assignment may help you choose your topic. If you must use published journal articles in your final paper, you probably don't want to write about a person who has only recently risen to public prominence, such as the major league pitcher who pitched his first game last night. Such a topic would not be well-documented by older journal articles, and it would be difficult for you to find enough material to support your thesis statement. However, if you are asked to include newspaper stories or recent news archives for your project, you would find plenty of material to support this choice of topic.
THE THESIS STATEMENT: DEVELOPING THE "BACKBONE" OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
As defined in the introduction, the thesis statement is what makes a research paper a research paper. A thesis is defined by Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary as "a proposition to be proved." It is important that this statement accurately reflects both the purpose and direction of the paper. A paper without a fully developed thesis statement, or one that is too narrow or broad in scope, will not be as successful as one with a strong and well-thought-out statement.
How do you write a thesis statement? Consider these guidelines:
* A thesis is usually one sentence.
* The thesis makes a claim about your topic. Remember that you must be able to support this claim. A thesis statement is where you take a position regarding your topic; it is not a mere statement of fact.
* A well developed thesis statement "asks to have more said about it. It demands some proof " (Paradigm, 2000).
The following are some examples of topics turned into thesis statements:
Urban recycling programs have a positive effect on a community by reducing the costs associated with waste management.
Children who watch too much television are less likely to have well-developed social skills.
You should know that the first statement that you write will not necessarily be the one that you use in your final paper. As you gather resources you may find that your statement is too narrow or too broad. You may also find that the question you want to answer is unanswerable. This does not necessarily mean that you can't write about it; it simply means that you need to be sure that you can make a strong case for or against the statement before keeping it as a topic.
The thesis statement you create is a unique topic and as such there may not be a single source to definitively support or dispute your statement. As you begin crafting your outline, you will discover other places in your paper where you will insert evidence to support your thesis.
GATHER RESOURCES
This is the "research" part of your paper. You should allow plenty of time to gather resources, as this exercise will take you in many directions. Think of resource gathering as a process and not a single event. You will probably not find everything you need in one trip to the library, nor are you likely to find everything in a single session on the Internet. As you conduct your research, you will learn more about your topic and discover even more resources you can use. Your teacher might ask that you use both primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources are firsthand materials, such as interviews, diaries, maps, graphs, statistics, charts, and other original documents. The important thing to remember about primary sources is that they are not interpretations or analyses of a subject; rather, they are raw data, direct personal observations, experiments, or transcripts.
Secondary sources are writings about primary sources, or about information extracted from them. They may take the form of opinions or summaries.
For example, the Constitution is a primary source.
An Encyclopædia Britannica article about the Constitution is a secondary source.
The use of both primary and secondary sources will make your research paper a well-rounded and complete investigation of the topic. However, use caution when choosing your sources. Don't believe everything you read, especially if it's on the Web. Remember that almost anyone can put up a Web site. It is important to evaluate the source of your information. If you're not sure of how reputable your source is, look elsewhere for more information, or verify it through more reputable sources.
CREATING AN OUTLINE
Upon crafting your thesis statement, you have defined the focus of your report. You also need to organize or outline your thoughts clearly so that the rest of your paper clearly represents the main point(s) of your argument. An outline is the framework for your paper. You will use it and the sources you have gathered to construct a persuasive argument.
There are lots of ways to create outlines. The easiest way is to begin by writing your thesis statement at the top of a page and to focus your outline around this statement. Here's an example:
Thesis: Children who watch too much television are less able to interact with others in a socially acceptable manner.
In order to prove the statement true or false, you will need to break it apart into smaller arguments, which we shall call the major topics of the paper. To help determine the major topics, write down at least three to four reasons you believe your thesis statement to be true or false (Rozakis, 1999). You may use the notes you have taken during the resource gathering phase, as well as supporting items you know to be true. If you have taken notes on cards, it is usually helpful to sort the notes into groups.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems with violence. Because these children don't interact with others, they are less likely to understand the concept of sharing.
For each of your major topics, think of two to three supporting statements. These statements will come from your research notes and will become the major focus of each paragraph. These supporting statements are designated with capital letters in the outline.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems through violence.
A. Can't distinguish between reality and fiction
B. Don't learn other ways of dealing with conflict
Finally, you will want to learn from your research what ideas support each of these supporting statements. These documentary points are indicated by numbers followed by a period. Even more specific points under these are indicated with lower case letters followed by a period.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems with violence.
A. Can't distinguish between reality and fiction
B. Believe that the characters are real
Like everything else in this process, the outline is not written in stone. You may find that you need to rearrange some of the points to make a stronger case, or add new ones. The outline will also graphically illustrate where you need more supporting evidence, which will help focus the resource gathering process.
Note: Some excellent writers claim not to need the outlining step, preferring instead to launch right into drafting the paper. Although this may well be true for some writers, most writers benefit from the creation of the outline. Even if you feel very qualified to write your paper, you will benefit from jotting down a structure and your major points.
PROOFREAD, EDIT, AND REVISE: THE HOME STRETCH
You have made it to the final step: congratulations! While you may be ready to finish this project, this stage is just as important as the previous steps.
While you need to provide good ideas and a thorough analysis in your research report, it is equally important that you present yourself well on paper. You should check your paper for mistakes in spelling and grammar, and to ensure that your ideas flow well and can be understood.
The following are a few "tricks of the trade" that you may want to try:
Gather Additional Information
While this step is not always necessary, this is the stage when you can look for very specific information to make some of your report's arguments stronger. For example, you may find that adding a statistic, map, picture, or graph will make your argument stronger. You may also find that you have failed to find information to support one of your arguments.
Distance Yourself from the Product
If you can, put your draft away for a couple of days before beginning the final edit. The distance will allow you to be more objective for your final read.
Ask Someone Impartial to Read Your Report
Have someone else read your paper for clarity and to proof it for grammatical/spelling errors. An author is often not the best person to edit his or her own work, and some people are simply less skilled in catching such errors. You can ask a friend to help you, and your school may offer services along these lines (e.g., a writing center). These services are staffed with people trained to help edit research papers.
Read Out Loud
Even if you are not doing an oral report, it is a good idea to read the final paper aloud. This will help you catch any problems with the flow of the final product. Reading aloud makes these problems more obvious, as you will stumble over awkward sentences, or realize where information is unclear.
Use Spell Check and Grammar Check
These tools are part of most word processing programs; use them. There are essentially no good excuses for spelling errors in papers. Remember, however, that these programs will not catch the use of incorrect words (like an instead of and, or their instead of there), so don't rely solely on mechanical spell and grammar checks.
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
Writing a Research Paper, from the University of Alberta Libraries
http://www.library.ualberta.ca/guides/writingresearch/index.cfm
A Student's Guide to Research with the WWW
http://www.slu.edu/departments/english/research/
Merriam Webster Online
http://merriam-webster.com/
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
REFERENCES
Buffa, L. 1997
Research Paper Smart: Where to Find It, How to Write It, How to Cite It.
New York, NY: Random House.
The CQ Researcher. 1991-present
Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
Editorials on File. 1970-present
New York, NY: Facts on File Inc.
Issues and Controversies on File. 1995-present
New York, NY: Facts on File Inc.
Lamm, K. 1998
10,000 Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports and Speeches: Intriguing, Original Research Topics for Every Student's Need (5th ed.)
New York, NY: Macmillan.
Rozakis, L. 1999
Schaum's Quick Guide to Writing Great Research Papers
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Let's start at the beginning. You need to select a subject area and define your topic. If you then take each step in turn, the process will be much more manageable. There will also be times when you will miss or need to repeat a step, but we will talk more about that later.
The method discussed in this guide will work best if you have given yourself plenty of time. If you have waited until the last minute, your options will be more limited, but you may still benefit from using this guide.
The research paper, also called a term paper, should contain a thesis statement, or hypothesis, which explains to the reader the overall position or point of your argument, and the ways in which you plan to advance your argument and persuade the reader.
Follow these steps to complete your paper:
Select a Topic
You will most likely be given a broad subject by your instructor. This subject will typically have something to do with the course material you are studying. A topic is derived from the subject but differs from it in specific ways.
Narrow the Topic
While this may seem obvious, it is a very important step. You need to make sure that the topic is not so narrow that you only have a few words to say about it. You also do not want it to be so broad that you attempt to write a multivolume encyclopedia.
Develop a Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is what makes the research paper a research paper. This one statement is a crucial element in the success or failure of your project. It serves as a preview for the paper and also communicates to the reader what will be proved or disproved.
Gather Resources
This is the "research" part of your paper. You want to allow plenty of time to gather resources since this is a process that may take you in many directions. Think of this step as a process and not an event. You will probably not find everything you need in just one trip to the library, nor will you find everything on the Internet. As you conduct your research, you will learn more about your topic and be directed toward even more resources.
Read, Analyze, Record
Not only do you have to gather the resources; you will also have to read them, analyze them, and take notes on points that you may want to use to support your thesis. This is the information that you will use to build your outline and write the draft and final paper.
Create an Outline
After gathering resources and drafting a working thesis, it is time to create an outline of your paper. This will help you refine the thesis and your arguments. An outline is essentially a road map from which you write your paper.
Write a First Draft
This is a crucial step. As with the outline, a draft will give you an idea of the materials you lack and how much additional information you need. After writing your draft, you may find that your topic is too broad. For example, you may write ten pages and only cover your first two points. Don't worry if your writing isn't perfect yet. Remember, this is only a draft.
Gather Additional Information
While not always necessary, this is the point in your paper where you look for very specific information to make some of your arguments stronger. For example, you may find that adding a statistic, map, picture, or graph will support your argument. You may also find that you cannot find specific information to support one of your arguments, and might discard it in favor of one for which you have ample supporting material.
Revise the Draft
At this point, you will make editorial changes and insert new material that you have gathered. You may also find that you need to eliminate items for which you have not found supporting documentation. It is often a good idea to let your draft "sit" for a few days between readings. This allows you to have some perspective on what you have written. What seemed like a brilliant concept at midnight on Monday may seem shallow and silly in the clear light of day on Wednesday. You should always review your work before handing it in.
Cite Your Sources
Give credit where credit is due. This means that if you have quoted directly from a book or paraphrased an idea you must give the original author credit. Not doing so is called plagiarism. You will also want to make sure that your citations conform to the standards required by your instructor.
Proofread, Edit, and Revise
This is the final stage of the process. Before turning in your paper, make sure that you have "dotted all the i's and crossed all the t's."
Although we have described these steps in a linear fashion, you may not always follow them that way. It is possible that you will gather some sources before you choose the topic, or that you will write an outline and then go back and revise the thesis. Just remember that writing is a process and that these are only guidelines.
Websites of Interest
We have identified Web sites that provide additional information about writing research papers.
References
SELECTING A TOPIC: HOW TO CHOOSE WISELY
Choosing your topic is a very important step in the research process. Without a well-defined topic, it will be difficult to construct a thesis statement, gather sources, write an outline, or complete a draft.
In most cases you will be given a subject, but this is not a topic. What's the difference? Subjects are typically broad and general. Some examples of subjects are recycling, immigrant history, Shakespeare's plays, or modern art. It would be rather hard to write papers (of reasonable length) on such broad subjects.
A topic is related to the subject but is quite specific. Topics will ask a question, show a cause and effect, or make a comparison (Rozakis, 1999). The following are some examples of topics:
Recycling- What impact do recycling programs have in urban environments?
Immigrant History- How does the immigrant experience in 2000 differ from the immigrant experience in 1900?
Shakespeare- How do the women characters in Shakespeare's plays reflect the culture of the time period?
Modern Art- Is the quality of a work of modern art, as judged by art critics, related to the degree of life-adjustment difficulties of the artist?
As you can see in the above examples, the topics ask specific questions. Such questions and their answers form the basis of the thesis statement.
Sometimes you will be given a specific topic by your instructor. In such cases, you would not use this method to narrow down your topic from a broader subject.
So how does one make the leap from a broad subject to a specific topic? There are many different ways to make such a transition, and no single best approach. Perhaps most important is to select a topic that's interesting or meaningful to you. Over the course of the semester or term, you will spend a lot of time gathering and reading materials and writing your paper. The entire process will be more enjoyable and productive if you actually like and value your topic.
Here are some specific ideas for selecting topics:
Look at Course Notes
Read back over your notes and texts from class. Was there something mentioned in class or your readings that you found really interesting?
Use a General Encyclopedia
Use an encyclopedia like Encyclopædia Britannica to look up the general subject. Read the entry for the subject and explore some of the related entries. Not only will this give you a better understanding of the subject, but it also might spark some thoughts about possible topics. Use the suggested readings and bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles to find additional sources of information. These resources can be the beginning of the resource gathering process.
Use a Specialized Encyclopedia
There are encyclopedias on many specialized subjects. A librarian can help you locate one in your subject area. Thumbing through the entries may help you identify some areas of interest. Again, follow the references to related articles, and use the suggested readings and bibliographies to help you locate additional resources.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a great way to discover a topic. At the top of the paper write down the general subject. Then spend a few minutes writing down ideas about the subject. Think about the types of questions the subject brings to mind. You should have a good start on a list of topics by the end of the time period.
Rely On a Friend
Sometimes it is difficult to think of a topic by yourself. Even when you do identify a topic, you may feel that although it is personally interesting, you cannot imagine that others would find it so. Friends can help you. Ask a friend to listen to your ideas and provide you with constructive criticism. Conversely, you could ask your friend to look at what you may consider to be a "boring" topic and tell you what they would write about instead. Sometimes a fresh perspective is all it takes to help you decide; you might even find that your topic isn't that boring!
Explore Any Special Resources Held by Your Library
Libraries often maintain special collections on topics of interest (special collections can be based on the preferences of previous librarians, or individuals who made donations to the library). Often, such resources are grouped together. You may be able to browse through such special collections for interesting ideas or questions to help you with your topic. An advantage of this approach is that many of the resources that you might gather to complete the paper may already be part of the special collection.
Participate in Online Discussion Groups
Online discussion groups on subjects may provide participants the opportunity to "propose" various topics of special interest. Other participants in the group can then provide instant feedback. There are also a number of library resources that you can use. You can find these resources in most public, college, and university libraries; ask a reference librarian for help locating them. Some suggested resources follow:
10,000 Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports and Speeches: Intriguing, Original Research Topics for Every Student's Needs- If you have absolutely no idea where to start or are having trouble narrowing down your topic, this book can be quite helpful.
CQ Researcher- This title (formerly called Editorial Research Reports) provides an extensive overview of a topic in each of its weekly issues. There is also a cumulative index to the entire series. Topics found in this source typically include current "hot topics" that may have legislation pending such as gun control, the death penalty, gambling, and children's rights.
Editorials on File- A great place to check to see if your topic might be arguable. This source reproduces editorials from over 150 newspapers from North America (United States and Canada).
Issues and Controversies on File- Each weekly magazine covers several contemporary issues. Again, these are "hot topics" or things you may hear about in the news. Another great source to use if your topic is arguable (controversies almost always have two sides to them).
When choosing your topic, you will also want to make sure that it fits into the scope of your assignment. If in doubt, always check with your instructor. He or she can provide you with advice throughout the research process.
Finally, make certain that your topic is "arguable." Remember that your ability to argue for your thesis is what makes your research paper a research paper. You might consider the way your reader (in most cases, your instructor) is likely to look at and react to things. Of course, it all depends on your goal for the paper.
NARROWING YOUR TOPIC: HOW TO GET AND REMAIN FOCUSED
You have already begun to sculpt a research topic from a broader subject, and will recall that the topic must be narrower than the subject. However, it must not become too narrow. If your topic becomes too restricted, you might end up with a simple and unarguable statement of fact, such as "Albert Einstein invented the theory of relativity." This will not satisfy the requirements of a research paper, in which you must argue your thesis.
Here are some additional questions to think about when you are narrowing your topic:
How much time do you have?
The more time you have, the more sophisticated your research topic can be. If you are pressed for time and the paper you want to write on is a topic not often written about, or if your library's collection does not include resources in this area, you may have problems. In such situations, you would be wise to choose a simpler topic given the nature of your resources.
How long is your paper?
Longer papers support broader topics. Make the breadth of the topic appropriate to its length. You will have problems writing a ten-page paper if your topic is too narrowly focused. Conversely, you will have problems adequately addressing all the points of a broader topic if your paper is too short.
Often, your instructor will require a specific length for the paper. If so, you should narrow or broaden your topic accordingly.
What types of resources do you need to use?
The types of resources you are required to use for the assignment may help you choose your topic. If you must use published journal articles in your final paper, you probably don't want to write about a person who has only recently risen to public prominence, such as the major league pitcher who pitched his first game last night. Such a topic would not be well-documented by older journal articles, and it would be difficult for you to find enough material to support your thesis statement. However, if you are asked to include newspaper stories or recent news archives for your project, you would find plenty of material to support this choice of topic.
THE THESIS STATEMENT: DEVELOPING THE "BACKBONE" OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
As defined in the introduction, the thesis statement is what makes a research paper a research paper. A thesis is defined by Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary as "a proposition to be proved." It is important that this statement accurately reflects both the purpose and direction of the paper. A paper without a fully developed thesis statement, or one that is too narrow or broad in scope, will not be as successful as one with a strong and well-thought-out statement.
How do you write a thesis statement? Consider these guidelines:
* A thesis is usually one sentence.
* The thesis makes a claim about your topic. Remember that you must be able to support this claim. A thesis statement is where you take a position regarding your topic; it is not a mere statement of fact.
* A well developed thesis statement "asks to have more said about it. It demands some proof " (Paradigm, 2000).
The following are some examples of topics turned into thesis statements:
Urban recycling programs have a positive effect on a community by reducing the costs associated with waste management.
Children who watch too much television are less likely to have well-developed social skills.
You should know that the first statement that you write will not necessarily be the one that you use in your final paper. As you gather resources you may find that your statement is too narrow or too broad. You may also find that the question you want to answer is unanswerable. This does not necessarily mean that you can't write about it; it simply means that you need to be sure that you can make a strong case for or against the statement before keeping it as a topic.
The thesis statement you create is a unique topic and as such there may not be a single source to definitively support or dispute your statement. As you begin crafting your outline, you will discover other places in your paper where you will insert evidence to support your thesis.
GATHER RESOURCES
This is the "research" part of your paper. You should allow plenty of time to gather resources, as this exercise will take you in many directions. Think of resource gathering as a process and not a single event. You will probably not find everything you need in one trip to the library, nor are you likely to find everything in a single session on the Internet. As you conduct your research, you will learn more about your topic and discover even more resources you can use. Your teacher might ask that you use both primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources are firsthand materials, such as interviews, diaries, maps, graphs, statistics, charts, and other original documents. The important thing to remember about primary sources is that they are not interpretations or analyses of a subject; rather, they are raw data, direct personal observations, experiments, or transcripts.
Secondary sources are writings about primary sources, or about information extracted from them. They may take the form of opinions or summaries.
For example, the Constitution is a primary source.
An Encyclopædia Britannica article about the Constitution is a secondary source.
The use of both primary and secondary sources will make your research paper a well-rounded and complete investigation of the topic. However, use caution when choosing your sources. Don't believe everything you read, especially if it's on the Web. Remember that almost anyone can put up a Web site. It is important to evaluate the source of your information. If you're not sure of how reputable your source is, look elsewhere for more information, or verify it through more reputable sources.
CREATING AN OUTLINE
Upon crafting your thesis statement, you have defined the focus of your report. You also need to organize or outline your thoughts clearly so that the rest of your paper clearly represents the main point(s) of your argument. An outline is the framework for your paper. You will use it and the sources you have gathered to construct a persuasive argument.
There are lots of ways to create outlines. The easiest way is to begin by writing your thesis statement at the top of a page and to focus your outline around this statement. Here's an example:
Thesis: Children who watch too much television are less able to interact with others in a socially acceptable manner.
In order to prove the statement true or false, you will need to break it apart into smaller arguments, which we shall call the major topics of the paper. To help determine the major topics, write down at least three to four reasons you believe your thesis statement to be true or false (Rozakis, 1999). You may use the notes you have taken during the resource gathering phase, as well as supporting items you know to be true. If you have taken notes on cards, it is usually helpful to sort the notes into groups.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems with violence. Because these children don't interact with others, they are less likely to understand the concept of sharing.
For each of your major topics, think of two to three supporting statements. These statements will come from your research notes and will become the major focus of each paragraph. These supporting statements are designated with capital letters in the outline.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems through violence.
A. Can't distinguish between reality and fiction
B. Don't learn other ways of dealing with conflict
Finally, you will want to learn from your research what ideas support each of these supporting statements. These documentary points are indicated by numbers followed by a period. Even more specific points under these are indicated with lower case letters followed by a period.
Example: Children who watch violent cartoons are more likely to try to solve problems with violence.
A. Can't distinguish between reality and fiction
B. Believe that the characters are real
Like everything else in this process, the outline is not written in stone. You may find that you need to rearrange some of the points to make a stronger case, or add new ones. The outline will also graphically illustrate where you need more supporting evidence, which will help focus the resource gathering process.
Note: Some excellent writers claim not to need the outlining step, preferring instead to launch right into drafting the paper. Although this may well be true for some writers, most writers benefit from the creation of the outline. Even if you feel very qualified to write your paper, you will benefit from jotting down a structure and your major points.
PROOFREAD, EDIT, AND REVISE: THE HOME STRETCH
You have made it to the final step: congratulations! While you may be ready to finish this project, this stage is just as important as the previous steps.
While you need to provide good ideas and a thorough analysis in your research report, it is equally important that you present yourself well on paper. You should check your paper for mistakes in spelling and grammar, and to ensure that your ideas flow well and can be understood.
The following are a few "tricks of the trade" that you may want to try:
Gather Additional Information
While this step is not always necessary, this is the stage when you can look for very specific information to make some of your report's arguments stronger. For example, you may find that adding a statistic, map, picture, or graph will make your argument stronger. You may also find that you have failed to find information to support one of your arguments.
Distance Yourself from the Product
If you can, put your draft away for a couple of days before beginning the final edit. The distance will allow you to be more objective for your final read.
Ask Someone Impartial to Read Your Report
Have someone else read your paper for clarity and to proof it for grammatical/spelling errors. An author is often not the best person to edit his or her own work, and some people are simply less skilled in catching such errors. You can ask a friend to help you, and your school may offer services along these lines (e.g., a writing center). These services are staffed with people trained to help edit research papers.
Read Out Loud
Even if you are not doing an oral report, it is a good idea to read the final paper aloud. This will help you catch any problems with the flow of the final product. Reading aloud makes these problems more obvious, as you will stumble over awkward sentences, or realize where information is unclear.
Use Spell Check and Grammar Check
These tools are part of most word processing programs; use them. There are essentially no good excuses for spelling errors in papers. Remember, however, that these programs will not catch the use of incorrect words (like an instead of and, or their instead of there), so don't rely solely on mechanical spell and grammar checks.
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
Writing a Research Paper, from the University of Alberta Libraries
http://www.library.ualberta.ca/guides/writingresearch/index.cfm
A Student's Guide to Research with the WWW
http://www.slu.edu/departments/english/research/
Merriam Webster Online
http://merriam-webster.com/
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
http://www.powa.org/
REFERENCES
Buffa, L. 1997
Research Paper Smart: Where to Find It, How to Write It, How to Cite It.
New York, NY: Random House.
The CQ Researcher. 1991-present
Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
Editorials on File. 1970-present
New York, NY: Facts on File Inc.
Issues and Controversies on File. 1995-present
New York, NY: Facts on File Inc.
Lamm, K. 1998
10,000 Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports and Speeches: Intriguing, Original Research Topics for Every Student's Need (5th ed.)
New York, NY: Macmillan.
Rozakis, L. 1999
Schaum's Quick Guide to Writing Great Research Papers
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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